Contemporary reliance on bicarbonate acquisition predicts increased growth of seagrass Amphibolis antarctica in a high-CO2 world

We find energetically costly bicarbonate pathways exist in three temperate seagrasses and then provide evidence that indicates greater growth and photosynthetic efficiency for bicarbonate users in a high CO2 world. Greater growth might enhance the future prosperity and rehabilitation of these important habitat forming plants, which have experienced declines of global significance.


Introduction
Seagrasses are habitat-forming marine plants that provide a number of critical ecological services to coastal zones, such as stabilization of sediments, support of trophic food webs, nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration (Costanza et al., 1997;Duarte, 2002;Waycott et al., 2009;Irving et al., 2011). When angiosperms first entered the aquatic realm nearly 90 million years ago, atmospheric CO 2 levels were much greater (approximately three to seven times) than today (Beer and Koch, 1996;Beardall et al., 1998;Berner and Kothavala, 2001). Since that time, atmospheric CO 2 concentrations have generally declined (Berner and Kothavala, 2001), a trend which has resulted in potential carbon limitation for many marine plants. This low atmospheric CO 2 has reduced the availability of inorganic carbon (C i ) for photosynthesis, which is compounded in marine systems by the slow diffusion of CO 2 in seawater and the slow rate of conversion of HCO 3 − to CO 2 when uncatalysed (Beer, 1989;Larkum et al., 1989;Schwarz et al., 2000). The recent spike in atmospheric CO 2 linked to anthropogenic activities is changing C i availability in marine systems and is thus likely to affect carbon acquisition and growth in primary producers, such as seagrasses (Koch et al., 2013).
While HCO 3 − is more readily available than dissolved CO 2 in marine systems, it cannot diffuse passively across the cell plasma membrane, and therefore, extracellular mechanisms have evolved to aid aquatic plants in the acquisition of CO 2 from HCO 3 − for photosynthesis, thereby reducing C i limitation (Larkum, et al., 1989;Invers et al., 1999;Hellblom et al., 2001). Three primary extracellular HCO 3 − acquisition systems have been described for seagrasses (Beer and Koch, 1996;James and Larkum, 1996;Hellblom et al., 2001;Beer et al., 2002). First, the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA) can catalyse the rapid conversion of HCO 3 − to CO 2 to restore CO 2 /HCO 3 − equilibrium at the plasma membrane or concentrate CO 2 at the chloroplast level (System A, sensu Beer et al., 2002). Second, the outward pumping of protons (H + ) from cells can create H + gradients to aid the cotransport of H + and HCO 3 − back across the plasma membrane (System B). Finally, the combination of extracellular CA-catalysed dehydration of HCO 3 − to CO 2 within acidified zones created by the extrusion of H + across the plasma membrane can concentrate CO 2 and encourage diffusion into cells (System C). For a full review of these mechanisms, see Beer et al. (2002).
All seagrasses tested to date appear to be reliant, to some extent, on the extracellular activity of CA for carbon acquisition, suggesting that they could experience some degree of carbon limitation at current atmospheric CO 2 concentrations (Larkum et al., 2006;Koch et al., 2013). Also, there is an energetic cost associated with both the production of extracellular CA and the more active mode of carbon acquisition using H + extrusion (Spalding and Ogren, 1982;Raven and Lucas, 1985;Falk and Palmqvist, 1992;Kübler and Raven, 1995;Fridlyand et al., 1996). As atmospheric, and thus oceanic, CO 2 continues to accumulate, this energetic cost could diminish if reliance on these carbon-acquisition mechanisms decreases, relative to direct CO 2 usage (Beardall and Giordano, 2002;Raven et al., 2011;Koch et al., 2013). For example, some lower order marine producers (i.e. cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae) can adjust their HCO 3 − -acquisition strategies within a number of hours of exposure to different CO 2 conditions (Falk and Palmqvist, 1992;Matsuda and Colman, 1995;Brueggeman et al., 2012). Seagrasses may have a similar ability to regulate energetically costly C i acquisition, but our understanding of this has advanced slowly relative to lower order producers (i.e. cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae) that have shorter generation times and can therefore be manipulated more easily for genetic expression studies (Larkum, et al., 2006).
Increasing CO 2 availability and any down-regulation of HCO 3 − acquisition could result in improved photosynthetic efficiency as the energy required to acquire carbon decreases, which may also translate to greater photosynthetic rates (Badger and Andrews, 1982;Raven et al., 2011;Koch et al., 2013). Likewise, if CA-mediated HCO 3 − mechanisms are maintained, they may become more efficient at lower ambient pH levels (Koch et al., 2013). However, this potential for more efficient and greater photosynthesis may be accompanied by a net gain in leaf growth or energy storage only when other resources, such as light or nitrogen, are not limiting (Zimmerman et al., 1997;Palacios and Zimmerman, 2007;Alexandre et al., 2012). In many seagrass species with a heavy reliance on HCO 3 − for C i acquisition, it is unknown whether they will undergo subsequent changes in growth as dissolved CO 2 increases.
In the present study, the reliance of Amphibolis antarctica (Labill.) Sonder et Ascherson on HCO 3 − pathways of C i acquisition was investigated by using an inhibitor of the enzyme CA (i.e. acetazolamide, AZ) and the biological buffer (i.e. tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane, TRIS). Having established that A. antarctica has a significant reliance on energetically costly HCO 3 − acquisition, a second experiment was conducted in which juvenile A. antarctica were grown in the presence of ambient (∼390 ppm) and forecasted CO 2 concentrations (∼900 ppm). It was hypothesized that photosynthesis and growth would increase for A. antarctica when CO 2 was enriched, because the greater availability of CO 2 relative to HCO 3 − might increase the photosynthetic efficiency of plants, as they may partition relatively fewer resources to energetically costly processes, such as HCO 3 − -uptake mechanisms or photorespiration.

Plant material
Mature seagrasses were collected from a depth of 4 m at Marino Rocks in the Gulf St Vincent, South Australia (35°02.806 S, 138°30.350 E). Seagrasses were transported to The University of Adelaide and kept in recirculating aerated aquaria with lighting conditions similar to the collection site (∼60 µmol m −2 s −1 ) in a 12 h-12 h light-dark cycle for 1 week, during which time experiments to determine C i -uptake mechanisms took place.

Inorganic carbon-acquisition mechanisms
The C i -uptake mechanisms of seagrasses were investigated by inhibiting HCO 3 − pathways to carbon acquisition. Seagrasses were exposed to the inhibitor AZ or the biological buffer TRIS, either separately or in combination. The primary seagrass of interest was A. antarctica, but to identify the generality of the mechanism within and across genera, C i -uptake mechanisms were also investigated for two other co-occurring seagrass species, the congener Amphibolis griffithii (Black) den Hartog and the species Posidonia sinuosa (Cambridge and Kuo), using the same methodology.
Oxygen evolution rates were determined using a Clark-type oxygen electrode and the logging program Biograph (Axword Software, Adelaide, South Australia). An entire leaf of A. antarctica (∼20 mm long) that was free of epiphyte growth was placed in the electrode chamber in 4 ml of seawater filtered to 0.45 µm. The fourth or fifth youngest leaf on each leaf head was chosen because these leaves were mature and consistently free of epiphytes and other biota, as well as being the correct length to fit the photosynthetic chamber. The chamber was illuminated using a fibre-optic light, which delivered a photon flux density (PFD) of ∼500 µmol m −2 s −1 at the leaf surface that was sufficient to saturate photosynthesis in A. antarctica. This light level was chosen to represent peak irradiances previously recorded in A. antarctica meadows (A. D. Irving, unpublished data;Bryars et al., 2011), but below levels shown to have a photoinhibitory effect on A. antarctica and other co-occurring species (Masini et al., 1995;Ralph et al., 1998). Light between 380 and 710 nm was measured by positioning the fibre quantum sensor of a diving pulse amplitude modulated (PAM) fluorometer (Walz, Effeltrich, Germany) in the electrode chamber. The PAM fluorometer fibre quantum sensor was calibrated against a LI-COR quantum sensor (Li-192SA; Lincoln, NE, USA). The electrode chamber was maintained at a constant temperature of 20°C using a transparent recirculating water jacket and was constantly mixed using a magnetic stirrer.
Seagrass leaves were sealed in the chamber and covered with a black cloth to measure dark respiration. Respiration rates were allowed to stabilize for 3 min before recording. The chamber was then illuminated, and where necessary, the appropriate stock solutions (see below) were injected into the chamber using micro-syringes. Photosynthetic rates were allowed to stabilize for 2 min before recording. Photosynthetic and respiration rates were averaged over 3 min and are expressed on a chlorophyll basis (as micromoles of oxygen per gram of chlorophyll per minute).
A 20 mm stock solution of the CA inhibitor AZ (Sigma Aldrich) was prepared in 50 mm sodium hydroxide (NaOH). A 1 m stock solution of TRIS (Sigma Aldrich) was prepared and the pH adjusted to ambient seawater pH (8.05). The buffer yielded a pH of 8.06 when injected into the electrode chamber. For AZ, 20 µl of stock solution was injected to achieve a final chamber concentration of 100 µm. For TRIS, 200 µl of stock solution was injected to achieve a final chamber concentration of 50 mm. Chamber conditions, including carbonate chemistry, are presented in Table 1a.

Effects of CO 2 on photosynthesis and growth
Juvenile A. antarctica seedlings were collected at the same depth and location as described above for adult plants and transported to an outdoor glasshouse at The University of Adelaide. Four individual seedlings were planted in sediment from the collection site in each of 12 transparent 2 litre microcosms (25 cm depth). Seagrasses were maintained at two CO 2 concentrations, representing current atmospheric CO 2 levels (∼390 ppm) and forecasted future CO 2 levels (∼900 ppm) under emission scenario A1FI for the year 2100 (Meehl et al., 2007), hereafter referred to as low CO 2 (L[CO 2 ]) and high CO 2 (H[CO 2 ]), respectively. Carbon dioxide was enriched by aerating the microcosms with a combination of ambient air and pure CO 2 using a two-channel gas mixer (Columbus Instruments, Columbus, OH, USA), which is equivalent to maintaining treatments within an enriched CO 2 atmosphere. Aeration helps to accelerate the diffusion of CO 2 into seawater, also minimizing any variation driven by plant photosynthesis or respiration. The accuracy of the mixed gas aerating treatments can vary slightly dependent on ambient atmospheric conditions, but any such changes are minor and occur naturally whenever ambient air is used for aeration; ambient CO 2 treatments are also subject to such natural fluctuations. Experimental conditions, including carbonate chemistry, in experimental microcosms were monitored throughout the experiment (Table 1b). Seventy per cent of seawater was replaced twice weekly to maintain salinity and alkalinity.
Microcosms were in an outdoor glass house and they were shaded from full surface irradiance using a combination of 50 and 70% shade cloth. HOBO ® waterproof light loggers (Onset, Wareham, MA, USA) were used to record light in lux, which was then converted to give an approximation of photosynthetically active radiation using the constant for natural sunlight (1 lux = 54 µmol m −2 s −1 ) recommended by Thimijan and Heins (1983). Average daily PFD was 42.5 µmol m −2 s −1 over a 12 h photoperiod, with an average daily maximum of 111.3 ± 11.7 µmol m −2 s −1 recorded at 13.00 h. Shading was designed to replicate closely the light conditions recorded during a monitoring study on the Adelaide metropolitan coast, which found average daily PFD of ∼44 µmol m −2 s −1 over a 12 h photoperiod (Irving, 2009). One specific 40 day light monitoring deployment at ∼2 m (low tide) on the Adelaide metropolitan coast found average daily maximal PFD of 155.95 ± 20.54 µmol m −2 s −1 (A. D. Irving, unpublished data), which is comparable to the peak levels recorded in our acclimation study. The daily maximum in this monitoring study ranged from 7 to 453 µmol m −2 s −1 , highlighting the dynamic nature of the light climate in the shallow sub-tidal near-shore zone, where the swell direction, wind direction, rainfall, runoff and topo graphy can all influence turbidity and thus light attenuation.

Chlorophyll fluorescence
A submersible diving PAM fluorometer (Walz, Effeltrich, Germany) was used to record rapid light curves (RLCs) and maximal quantum yield (QY max ). Seagrasses were measured in situ in microcosms at L[CO 2 ] and H[CO 2 ] after 12 weeks. The photon flux densities used during the RLCs were 0, 18,37,62,92,125,186,256 and 400 µmol m −2 s −1 , each of 10 s duration, followed by a saturating pulse of light, to record the effective quantum yield (Φ PSII ). All RLC measurements were taken between 11.00 and 12.30 h. The light absorbance of every sample leaf was measured by placing a quantum sensor directly behind the leaf and recording the percentage of ambient light that was absorbed. The electron transport rate (ETR) was calculated as follows: ETR = Φ PSII × PFD × leaf absorbance × 0.5. For quantitative comparisons of RLCs [i.e. initial slope (α), maximal electron transport rate (ETR max ) and light saturation (I k )], the ETR data were fitted with a least-squares non-linear regression curve based on the exponential difference equation from Platt et al. (1980) using the Microsoft Excel (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA) solvers provided by Ritchie (2008). Light saturation was calculated as ETR max /α, where α is the initial slope of the non-inhibited section of the fitted curve. The value of QY max was determined from pre-dawn fluorescence measurements.

Photosynthesis and respiration
Following 12 weeks at experimental CO 2 levels, photosynthesis and respiration rates were measured as described above, but without the addition of buffers and inhibitors. Reciprocal measurements were made, where individuals from each CO 2 treatment were measured at both low and high CO 2 , to determine whether physiological acclimation had occurred over the course of the experiment (see Table 1c for a description of chamber conditions). Electron transport rates at 400 µmol m −2 s −1 and maximal gross photosynthetic rates were then used to calculate ETR-to-O 2 ratios (i.e. moles of electrons per mole of O 2 evolved). This was done for L[CO 2 ] and H[CO 2 ] plants tested in their respective growth treatments.

Growth
Growth parameters were measured after 12 weeks. Leaves and shoots (above ground) were separated from roots and rhizomes (below ground) and dried for 48 h at 60°C to measure dry mass (DM). Above-ground components were then washed in 5% HCl to remove any calcified epiphytes, redried for 48 h at 60°C and reweighed.
Leaf initiation was recorded by trimming the corner of the second youngest leaf on the highest leaf head of each seedling at the commencement of the growth experiment. On juveniles, this method of monitoring leaf growth is less obtrusive than sheath marking or using leaf ties, which can impact meristem growth and plant buoyancy (O. W. Burnell, personal observation). The total number of leaves on each leaf head was recorded before planting and again after 12 weeks to calculate the change in total leaf number, which accounted for different rates of leaf shedding and production from any new meristems.

Chlorophyll determination
Chlorophyll content was measured to enable expression of photosynthesis and respiration per unit of chlorophyll. Following oxygen electrode measurements, seagrass material was removed from the chamber, rinsed in milliQ water, and immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen. Samples were then stored at −80°C until extractions were conducted. Chlorophyll concentrations were determined using the methodology of Granger and Lizumi (2001). Briefly, leaves were soaked in 1 ml of 100% acetone in dark, refrigerated conditions for 1 h. Seagrass and acetone were then transferred to a chilled mortar and pestle and ground using an additional 1 ml of 86.7% acetone and acid washed sand until they were reduced to a flocculent slurry. Two drops of 1% MgCO 3 were added before diluting to 4 ml with 86.7% acetone to achieve a final sample concentration of 90% acetone. Samples were then centrifuged for 5 min at 670.8 g of relative centrifugal force. Absorbance of the supernatant was measured in a spectrophotometer (Jenway 6405, Stone, Staffordshire, UK) at 647, 664 and 725 nm. Chlorophyll concentrations were calculated using equations from Jeffrey and Humphrey (1975).

It was evident that A. antarctica uses HCO 3
− pathways for C i acquisition, because light-saturated photosynthesis declined by ∼54% when AZ and TRIS were added in combination (Fig. 1). The sensitivity of A. antarctica to both AZ and the TRIS buffer was consistent with a System A + B mode of C i acquisition (Beer et al., 2002). The lack of an interactive effect in the two-factor ANOVA provided no support for a System C mode of acquisition (Table 2a). Inorganic carbon uptake in the congener A. griffithii followed a similar pattern to A. antarctica, in that photosynthesis declined by ∼57% when AZ and TRIS were added in combination; however, an interaction between AZ and TRIS in the two-factor ANOVA provided better support for a System C mode of acquisition (F 1,28 = 7.88, P = 0.008; Supplementary material Fig. S1a and Supplementary material Table S1). In contrast, the species P. sinuosa was insensitive to the addition of the TRIS buffer and only moderately affected by the inhibitor AZ, highlighting a lesser dependency on HCO 3 − pathways for photosynthesis (Supplementary material Fig. S1b and Supplementary material Table S1). Dark respiration did not differ between experimental treatments for any of the three species, and therefore, analyses are not presented ( Fig. 1 and Supplementary material Fig. S1). For rates of photosynthesis and respiration per gram of fresh mass, see Supplementary material Table S2.
When plants were reciprocally switched between CO 2 treatments, measurement CO 2 had a significant effect on photosynthesis of both L[CO 2 ] and H[CO 2 ] grown plants ( Fig. 2b and Table 2b). In contrast, there was no effect of growth CO 2 ; that is, seagrasses photosynthesis was responding primarily to measurement conditions (i.e. dissolved CO 2 ), rather than exhibit-ing significant physiological acclimation to growth in the different CO 2 treatments. Molar ratios between ETR and gross oxygen evolution based on leaf area were 9.51 mol electrons (mol O 2 ) −1 for L[CO 2 ] plants and 8.08 mol electrons (mol O 2 ) −1 for H[CO 2 ] plants.

Discussion
The three seagrass species tested were sensitive to the inhibition of HCO 3 − -uptake mechanisms, indicating that at or under contemporary CO 2 concentrations they are reliant on energetically costly C i acquisition. Seagrasses are commonly known to use these HCO 3 − pathways for photosynthesis (Beer et al., 1977;Millhouse and Strother, 1986;James and Larkum, 1996;Beardall, et al., 1998;Hellblom et al., 2001); however, we have a limited understanding of how they regulate these mechanisms when faced with environmental variation (Larkum, et al., 2006) and any implications of this for long-term growth. Any increase in the proportion of direct CO 2 uptake relative to energetically costly HCO 3 − acquisition could benefit their carbon balance and thus growth rate (Beardall and Giordano, 2002;Raven et al., 2011;Koch et al., 2013). In accordance with such predictions, we found that increased photosynthesis and growth of A. antarctica was accompanied by lower ETR-to-O 2 ratios, indicating that not only growth but also photosynthetic efficiency could increase at forecasted CO 2 concentrations.
Greater availability of CO 2 increased the ETR max in A. antarctica, as has been reported in other seagrass species (Jiang et al., 2010;Alexandre et al., 2012). However, changes in ETR at forecasted CO 2 concentrations were small relative to increases in light-saturated photosynthesis measured by O 2 evolution (i.e. 1.4-fold for ETR vs. 2.1-fold for O 2 evolution). This difference translated to lower ETR-to-O 2 ratios calculated for H[CO 2 ] plants when compared with L[CO 2 ] plants (i.e. 8.08 vs. 9.51 mol electrons (mol O 2 ) −1 , respectively). This molar ratio is also commonly referred to in its inverse form, which would equate to 0.105 and 0.124 mol O 2 (mol electrons) −1 for L[CO 2 ] and H[CO 2 ] plants, respectively. While these values differ from the theoretical maximum of 0.25 mol O 2 (mol electrons) -1 that is based on the minimal number of electrons needed to produce a given amount of O 2 during photosynthesis (i.e. 4 mol electrons (mol O 2 ) −1 ; Walker, 1987), recorded values for different seagrass species are known to vary widely Silva et al., 2009). Given that ETR-to-O 2 ratios were measured at relatively high light intensities, it is likely that processes such as photorespiration contributed to these high ETR-to-O 2 ratios. Photorespiration increases in conditions of low C i availability, where plants fix O 2 rather than CO 2 (Black et al. 1976;Buapet et al. 2013). It is well known that the usually linear relationship between ETR and O 2 evolution can deteriorate at high light intensities, at which photorespiration or other processes that can act as sinks for electrons increase Carr and Bjork, 2003;Silva and Santos 2004).
Photorespiration may also have contributed to the treatment differences that we observed between ETR-to-O 2 ratios for L[CO 2 ] and H[CO 2 ] plants. Importantly, the finding that L[CO 2 ] plants transported more electrons per mole of O 2 evolved than H[CO 2 ] plants could indicate greater photorespiration where plants were CO 2 limited. In such circumstances, photorespiration is likely to have acted as a greater sink for electrons measured using fluorescence in L[CO 2 ] plants. Thus, O 2 evolution measurements may provide a better estimate of changing photosynthetic efficiency than ETR at higher irradiances, because photorespiration in CO 2 -limited individuals remains undetected by fluorescence measurements. However, photorespiration is generally low in seagrasses with effective carbon concentrating mechanisms that maintain high concentrations of CO 2 around rubisco (Beer, 1989; Touchette and Burkholder, 2000). It is also possible that greater ETRto-O 2 ratios at low CO 2 might be consistent with a greater proportion of electron flow supporting C i -uptake mechanisms. However, this may be of greater consequence at lower irradiances, where plants are forced to partition limited energetic resources between photosynthesis and CO 2 acquisition. Despite greater photosynthesis and growth at forecasted CO 2 concentrations, there was limited evidence to suggest any down-regulation of HCO 3 − -uptake mechanisms in A. antarctica grown at H[CO 2 ], because when seagrasses were switched to L[CO 2 ] to measure photosynthesis, there was no effect of CO 2 growth conditions. This suggests that, on transition to a different CO 2 concentration, the photosynthetic rate was determined by changing dissolved CO 2 , rather than by different affinities for HCO 3 − acquired during the 3 month growth period. If H[CO 2 ]-grown plants were no longer able to acquire CO 2 from HCO 3 − , much lower O 2 production would have been expected when they were switched back to L[CO 2 ]. Shorter-term studies have likewise found that the relative level of HCO 3 − uptake by seagrass is often maintained across pH gradients (James and Larkum, 1996;Campbell and Fourqurean, 2013b). Thus, it appears that changes in growth and photosynthesis may have occurred based primarily on greater passive uptake of CO 2 , not on down-regulation of HCO 3 − -uptake mechanisms. Alternatively, down-regulation may have been masked if plants rapidly modified HCO 3 −acquisition rates during the brief reciprocal CO 2 transitions, although this appears unlikely. While rapid re-establishment (2-5 min) of HCO 3 − acquisition can occur following dark-tolight transitions (Carr and Axelsson, 2008), the time for activation and deactivation for HCO 3 − mechanisms with CO 2 transitions would appear to be much greater. Studies of lower order producers (i.e. cyanobacteria and eukaryotic algae) and freshwater angiosperms show hours to days for full reactivation and down-regulation following CO 2 transitions 7 Figure 3: Effect of growth [CO 2 ] on total dry mass (DM; a), above-ground DM (b), below-ground DM (c), leaf initiation (d) and change in leaves per plant (e) for A. antarctica grown in L[CO 2 ] and H[CO 2 ] conditions for 12 weeks. Bars are means ± SEM (n = 6). (Spalding and Ogren, 1982;Falk and Palmqvist, 1992;Matsuda and Colman, 1995;Maberly and Madsen, 2002).
The greater increase in below-ground biomass at H[CO 2 ] suggests that A. antarctica may preferentially allocate resources to roots and rhizomes for growth and energy storage. These findings are consistent with studies of natural and in situ CO 2 enrichment that indicate disproportionate accumulation of below-ground biomass in other seagrasses, relative to above-ground tissue (Hall-Spencer et al., 2008;Russell et al., 2013;Campbell and Fourqurean, 2013a). However, the significant correlation between below-ground biomass and the three above-ground growth parameters could suggest that the former simply responds more rapidly to CO 2 enrichment, and this could later translate to changes in above-ground parameters. This translation to greater above-ground biomass would appear possible given that seagrass at H[CO 2 ] also showed a greater increase in leaf number; nonetheless, with potentially greater carbon fixation per leaf area at enriched CO 2 levels, there may be limited need for large increases in above-ground biomass.
The increase in below-ground biomass could offer seagrasses greater resistance to environmental perturbations in an era when anthropogenic influences have been reported to be almost exclusively negative (Orth et al., 2006). Greater belowground energetic resources could sustain juveniles during periods of physiological stress, including reduced light availability (Burke et al., 1996;Mackey et al., 2007;Ooi et al., 2011), high temperature (Walker and Cambridge, 1995;Niu et al., 2012;Koch et al., 2013) and grazing pressure (Hughes et al., 2004). Preferential allocation to below-ground resources that are protected from herbivores might be particularly beneficial given that enriched CO 2 conditions can result in seagrass that is more palatable to grazers owing to a reduction of phenolic deterrents (Arnold et al., 2012). Likewise, faster establishment of below-ground structures could lower the vulnerability of seagrass to physical disturbances, such as wave action and bioturbation/erosion (Townsend and Fonseca, 1998;Bastyan and Cambridge, 2008). An increase in recruitment success resulting from reproduction could be particularly beneficial, given that most seagrasses are heavily reliant on clonal growth for meadow expansion, with low rates of seed or seedling survival and natural recolonization (Kirkman and Kuo, 1990;Irving, 2013). Any prolonged increase in seagrass growth, however, will require other favourable conditions, such as adequate light, nutrients and facilitative interactions with other biota (i.e. grazer activity and epiphyte abundance), all of which are known to limit seagrass biomass where CO 2 is enriched (O. W. Burnell, unpublished data;Palacios and Zimmerman, 2007;Alexandre, et al., 2012;Burnell et al., 2013).
As historically high CO 2 levels potentially aided the initial transition of angiosperms into the aquatic realm (Beer and Koch, 1996;Beardall, et al., 1998), forecasted increases in CO 2 could return such benefits, by increasing the availability of dissolved CO 2 . We found that A. antarctica has a contemporary reliance on HCO 3 − -uptake mechanisms, as well as greater photosynthesis and growth with prolonged acclimation to forecasted CO 2 conditions. Importantly, any lasting increase in productivity and growth could enhance the host of ecosystem benefits provided by seagrass meadows.

Supplementary material
Supplementary material is available at Conservation Physiology online.

Figure 4:
Correlations between below-ground biomass (expressed as DM per seagrass) and above-ground growth parameters (expressed as DM biomass per seagrass, leaf initiation per meristem and change in leaves per seagrass) for A. antarctica. Data points are the average in each microcosm (n = 6).