A Very Short History of International Law Journals ( 1869 – 2018 )

The first part of this article presents an overview of the rise of the first international and comparative law journals in the late 19th century followed by an account of the three factors lying behind the relative fall of the comparative element in the title of some of the international law journals published in French, Russian, Spanish, German, Japanese, Italian and English from 1869 to the end of World War I. The second part surveys the consolidation of international law periodicals in the interwar period under the impact of the establishment of the League of Nations in both Latin America and Europe, including Nordic and Eastern Europe. The third part examines the expansion and main characteristics of international law journals during the Cold War and their geographical extension towards Asia, Oceania and, occasionally, the Middle East and Africa. The fourth part focuses on the main features of the global post-1989 period in the field of periodicals of international law, examining the impact on them of the expansion and sectoral specialization of international law, regionalization, globalization, interdisciplinarity and the transformative influence of new technologies respectively. The conclusion reflects on the first 150 years of international law journals and points to future developments. ‘Después de tantas horas de caminar sin encontrar ni una sombra de árbol, ni una semilla de árbol, ni una raíz de nada, se oye el ladrar de los perros.’ – Juan Rulfo, El llano en llamas (1953) * Senior Lecturer in Law, Brunel Law School, Brunel University London, United Kingdom. E-mail: ignaciodelarasilla@post.harvard.edu. The author gratefully acknowledges the research leave awarded by Brunel University London in 2017 and the invitation of the Visiting Fellows Program of the Graduate Institute in Geneva in 2016. For their responses to his research enquiries, the author is grateful to Y. Onuma and T. Toyoda (Japan), W.E. Butler and L. Mälksoo (Russia), R.C.H. Lesaffer and A. Eyffinger (The Netherlands), P. Alston (Oceania), M. Koskenniemi (Nordic countries), I. Bantekas and T. Skouteris (Greece), G. Bartolini and I. Ingravallo (Italy) and J. P. Scarfi (Latin America) and for proofreading the text to D. Chay. The usual caveat applies. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ejil/article-abstract/29/1/137/4993227 by OUP site access user on 08 May 2018 138 EJIL 29 (2018), 137–168


Introduction
Comparative international legal studies are on the rise.In recent years, several authors have been persuaded of the scholarly possibilities of the hitherto historically neglected term of 'comparative international law'. 1 According to Anthea Roberts, the source of 'the emerging phenomenon of comparative international law' is that 'academics, practitioners and international and national courts are increasingly seeking to identify and interpret international law by engaging in comparative analyses of various domestic court decisions'. 2 This approach to comparative international law is one that the interwar generation of British international lawyers would readily have subscribed to.Their project, led by Arnold McNair and Hersch Lauterpacht's edition of the Digest of Public International Law Cases, 3 spearheaded what Anthony Carty called the 'practitioners' approach to international law' 4 in interwar England. 5 However, in fleshing out a term about which only 'scattered, terse even cryptic' 6 references could be found in international 7 and comparative legal scholarship until recently, 8 other scholarly contributions have departed from this narrow focus on international and domestic comparative judicial practice. 9t a time when scholars of 'comparative international law' (CIL) are beginning to establish 'a theoretical and methodological foundation' for a 'developing field', 10 CIL offers a platform for fruitful synergies in international law research in combination with the history of international law.During the last decade, in the wake of what has come to be known as the 'turn to history' in international law, this field of study has been greatly enhanced.The history of international law journals is an area that, almost 150 years since La Revue de droit international et de la législation comparée was established in 1869, remains in its infancy. 11The first short global history of international law journals holds the promise of being a vector for the development of the comparative study of international law, of which, as Martti Koskenniemi has noted, there is still 'disappointingly little'. 12 global study of the doctrinal periodical literature in international law would allow one, first, to map the patterns of global geographical diffusion of international law journals and the engagement of different regions with this field of study through an analysis of their autochthonous contribution.Second, it would provide a transnational thread for a historical examination of the scientific evolution and main features of the discipline, reflected in the scope of international law journals in different regions and through different historical periods, up until the present time.Third, a global history of international law journals would contribute to a retracing of the historical precedents of CIL, while simultaneously nurturing a historical perspective of what Koskenniemi refers to as a 'serious comparative study of international law'.This is a project that 'would contribute to thinking of the world no longer in terms of what Hegel used to call abstract universals, but seeing all players as both universal and particular at the same time, speaking a shared language, but doing that from their own, localizable standpoint'. 13Last but not least, a documented history of international law periodicals would contribute to the preservation of a global historical patrimony of the discipline that remains bibliographically dispersed and difficult to find.
The first part examines the emergence and expansion of the first journals of international law written in French, Russian, Spanish, German, Italian, Japanese and English and published from 1869 to the beginning of World War I.An overview of the rise of the first 'international and comparative law' journals in the late 19th century is followed by an account of three factors underpinning the relative decline of the comparative dimension in the title of the international law journals in Western Europe and in the Americas during this period.These factors include, first, the professionalization of comparative law as a distinct branch of legal studies; second, the consolidation of international law as a separate domain of specialization and, third, the emerging instrumentalist nationalization of the study of international law and of the national practice thereof in the early 20th century.
The second part of the article surveys how international law periodicals took root in the interwar period influenced by the establishment of the League of Nations.The increasing interest in the subject in different countries was, indeed, mirrored in the establishment of new international law journals in Latin America and Europe, including, for the first time, in the Nordic countries and Eastern Europe.The third part examines the expansion and main characteristics of international law journals during the Cold War period in the light of four main features.The first of these is the consolidation of 'national' journals among Western European countries, followed by their subsequent geographical expansion towards Asia, Oceania and, to a lesser extent, the Middle East and Africa.The second feature is the renaissance of the 'comparative' dearth in international law journals in Britain, expanding into the USA and Commonwealth countries.The third is the advent of the first wave of university journals of international law in the USA, and the fourth is the embryonic emergence of the first journals devoted to specialized sectors of international law.
The fourth part of the article focuses on the main features of the global post-1989 period in the field of periodicals of international law.First of all, it examines the continuation, albeit with new added features, of some pre-1989 earlier tendencies, including reference to the now global expansion of 'national' journals as well as the expansion of university journals in international law into Europe.Second, it examines the new characteristics of the post-1989 breed of periodicals in the field brought about by the influence of new phenomena.These include the expansion and sectoral specialization of international law, regionalization, globalization, interdisciplinarity and the transformative impact of new technologies on academic international law publishing respectively.The conclusion brings together some of the patterns emerging from this survey of roughly 150 years of the history of international law journals and examines its potential as a blueprint for new research on the history and contemporary trends in international law and its scholarship.

At the Birth of Two Disciplines: International Law Journals from 1869 to World War I
In 1869, the very first professional journal of general international law, La Revue de droit international et de la législation comparée (RDILC) was founded in Ghent, Belgium.Its title reflected the international and comparative duality of purpose of the, by then, professionally emerging disciplines of international law and comparative law. 14he hybrid scope of the first journal of international law was an offspring of what Koskenniemi called 'l'esprit d'internationalité'. 15 This inspired European liberals to begin 'to advocate a new international law that would be responsive to the internal transformations in European societies: democracy, liberalism, and economic and political modernity'. 16The launching of the RDILC was accompanied by the establishment of the Société de législation comparée (SLC) in the same year in Paris and, four years later, also in Ghent, of the first professional international law society, the Institut de Droit International (IDI). 17Also in 1873, the Association for the Codification and Reform of the Law of Nations (later renamed the International Law Association) was founded in Brussels, having as objectives 'the study, clarification and development of international law, both public and private, and the furtherance of international understanding and respect for international law'. 18n 1874, Edouard Clunet, an associate member of the IDI transposed the international-comparative dual model to the domain of private international law by founding the second international law journal, Le Journal du droit international privé et de la jurisprudence comparée.Other European countries soon followed suit, adopting the double international-comparative label in the titles of their first international law academic journals.In Spain, in 1883, barely four years after a royal decree had extended the teaching of international law to seven universities other than Madrid, the Revista de derecho internacional, legislación y jurisprudencia comparadas was established. 19The editorial board of the first short-lived Spanish journal of international law was also inspired, as remarked by its editors, by: the convenience and need, which are evident for anyone who has focused his attention on the great development known in these latest times by the relations among peoples, which is increasing in the same proportion that the interest and the importance of international law and of everything that helps the knowledge of the progress and legal movement which are taking place in every state. 20 1898, Italian scholars of international law joined the new trend with the first Italian journal of international law, the Rivista di diritto internazionale e di legislazione comparata. 21opes underpinning the comparative-international duality of scholarly purpose channelled by these periodicals and institutional developments were still very much alive at the turn of the century.This is shown by the first World Congress on Comparative Law, which took place in Paris in 1900, 22 during which 'particular emphasis was laid on its role in the preparation of a common law for the civilized world, the contents of which would be laid down by international legislation'. 23The alliance that the founders of the IDI 'sought between international law and liberal domestic reform' 24 was also emulated by the Belgian Society of Comparative Law that established its own journal of international and comparative law in 1908. 25However, the dual emphasis on the 'international' and 'comparative' elements in the title of the first international law journals dwindled during the subsequent decades. 26everal factors lie behind this gradual -although, as time would tell, merely temporary -falling away of reformist liberal comparative law-based internationalism in the titles of some of the first scientific international law periodicals.These include, first, the consolidation of comparative law as a distinct branch of legal studies; second, the growing professional and scientific independence of the discipline of international law and, third, the emerging instrumentalist nationalization of the study of international law and of national practice thereof in the early 20th century.

A The Rise of Comparative Law, Professionalization and Nationalization
The initial cause of the increase in the methodological comparative law-based internationalism of the first international law journals finds its raison d'être in the gradual consolidation of comparative law as a distinct branch of legal studies.Since Montesquieu, who is often considered the 'first major comparativist in modern times',27 comparative law has had a long-standing part to play in learned writings. 28These were mainly concerned with practical legislative reform and/or the management of legal diversity within imperial complexes. 29In Germany, the first journal of comparative law had been launched as early as 1829, 30 and, in France, the academic study of comparative law had been 'often paired with, and integrated into, a specific subject' since the mid-1840s. 31owever, the foundational period of comparative law as a field of academic study is generally retraced back to the period between the establishment of the SLC in Paris in 1869 and the first World Congress of Comparative Law in 1900. 32This symbolized the 'emergence of the discipline as a new branch of legal science in its own right', 33 and it is still considered 'the cradle of modern comparative law', 34 which marked the dawning of 'the belle époque of comparative law' across the Western world. 35n France, during this period, the SCL began publishing its Annuaire de la législation étrangère in 1872, and, in Germany, the Zeitschrift fur vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft was founded in Heidelberg in 1878.Britain, where Henry Maine had been appointed the Corpus Christi Professor of Historical and Comparative Jurisprudence in Oxford in 1869, continued the trend with the establishment of the Society of Comparative Legislation in London in 1894 and the launch of its own Journal of Comparative Legislation 36 to 'promote knowledge of the course of legislation in different countries, more particularly in the several parts of H.M. Dominions and in the United States'. 37n 1918, the British Society of Comparative Legislation (BSCL) added the coda 'and International Law' to the title of its journal, 'given the present importance of the subject of international law'.38 However, the executive committee of the BSCL stressed that this addition, which reflected the increasing influence of international law in Britain during World War I and its immediate aftermath, 'should not affect in any way the primary objects of the society, which are to publish an annual review of legislation and to record the development and working of the laws passed in the different parts of the Empire'.39 A second factor contributing to the gradual falling away of the comparative dimension in the early 20th century's new generation of international law journals was the growing professionalization of the discipline of international law itself.This was demonstrated by the release of several periodical scientific publications specifically devoted to international law in Europe.In 1869, in the same year that the RDILC was being founded in Ghent, the Revue internationale de la Croix-Rouge was established in Geneva by the International Committee of the Red Cross founded by H. Dunant in 1863.40 In 1877, the Annuaire de l'Institut du droit international (AIDI) began to be published by a 'certain number of men' who 'individually enjoy already, thanks to their works and their writings, some authority in the domain of international law', but who, with their association, wanted to add 'a new force' to what they considered to be the 'principal factors of international law' -that is, those of 'diplomacy and individual science'.41 Three years later in 1880, the first Russian international law society, 42 supported at the highest levels of the imperial government and with Fyodor Martens as its secretary, was founded, bringing in its wake the publication of a short-lived 'Bulletin' of the Society in St. Petersburg.43 Also short-lived was the next international law journal published in Imperial Russia, the Zhurnal mezhdunarodnogo i gosudarstvennogo prava, which was founded and published by E.K. Simson, a 'privat-docent' with a 'nationalist' conception of international law, and appeared in two volumes in 1897.44 The first international law journal founded in Germany was established in Leipzig in 1891, covering both public and private international law as Zeitschrift fur internationales Privat -und offentlichhes Recht.45 France soon followed suit with its own Revue générale de droit international public (RGDIP) in 1894.Under the editorship of Antoine Pillet and Paul Fauchille, the RGDIP devoted itself to the service of the science of the droit des gens at a time when the 'science of international law' was, according to its editors, looking for its place 'at the junctures of the disciplines to which it touched upon philosophy via natural law, to positive law via treaties to international morality and politics'. 46The trend of publications devoted solely to international law continued after the turn of the 20th century.Dionisio Anzilotti rekindled the fuse of scientific periodicals of international law in Italy with his Rivista di diritto internazionale in 1906.In Germany, the Zeitschrift fur Volkerrecht und Bundesstaatsrecht was launched in 1907, abandoning the reference to German federal law in its title from 1913 onwards.Also in 1913, a voluminous first issue of more than 1,500 pages of the Jarhbuch de Volkerrechts was published in Germany under the editorship of Theodor Niemeyer and Karl Strupp.47 In 1914, coinciding with the establishment by Niemeyer of the oldest academic institution in Germany dedicated especially to international law in Kiel, the Zeitschrift fur internationales Privat -und offentlichhes Recht, the journal established in Leipzig in the late 19th century, became Niemeyers Zeitschrift für internationales Recht.The Netherlands, where the Netherlands Association of International Law was established in 1910, also joined the trend from 1913 onwards with its own Grotius: internationaal jaarboek.48 The first Dutch periodical was welcomed across the Atlantic as an indication of 'an increased interest on the part of the Dutch in international law, and a realization that their country as the seat of the Hague court may perhaps be assigned a role whose moral influence in the council of states might be far greater than either its size or strength would warrant'.49 Also in France, where journals on private international law had followed their own course with the foundation of Revue de droit international privé et droit penal international in 1905, Clunet's 1874 journal became the Journal du droit international in 1915.In Britain, however, the establishment of periodicals of international law had to wait due to the outbreak of World War I.In 1915, the Grotius Society was established in London 'to afford an opportunity to those interested in International Law of discussing from a cosmopolitan point of view the acts of the belligerent and neutral States in the present war and the problems to which it almost daily is giving birth'.50 The Grotius Society began publishing an annual volume of the lectures given at its meetings in London, and at the conferences organized by the Society, under the title of Problems of War in 1915.This title changed to Transactions of the Grotius Society from its fourth volume in 1918 (see Figure 1).51 The third factor behind the falling away of the comparative law dimension in international law periodicals during this foundational period of academic publishing was the emerging instrumentalist nationalization of the study of international law.
Although, at the dawn of the 20th century, the nationalist spirit was greatly extended among international legal elites in many parts of Europe, it turned out to be particularly influential in the inception of new international law journals in three countries. 52These were Japan, a peripheral state aspiring by then to climb the ladder of the 'standard of civilization'; Spain, a territorially diminished and humiliated former great empire in the semi-periphery of Western Europe and the USA, the rising new empire in the early days of the past century.
The first international law journal published outside the European continent was established in Japan under the auspices of the Japanese Society of International Law as Kokusaihö Gaikö Zasshi in 1902.According to Yasuaki Onuma, by establishing a Japanese 'national' society of international law in 1897, which was possible 'only with the strong support and encouragement of the government', 53 Japanese elites crowned a process of importation of knowledge and ideas from the West that had flourished 'from the last days of the Edo (Tokugawa) period'. 54Among these imports was the 'notion of modern international law' with the first courses beginning to be taught in the Kaiseijo by Shu Nishi in 1866. 55In 'appropriating' international law, as other peripheral states confronting the threat posed by Western imperial policies were also doing at the time, 56 Japan sought to get rid of the demands imposed by the unequal treaties that it had successively concluded with the Western powers since 1858. 57his aim, which at the time was 'Japan's first and foremost diplomatic objective in the late nineteenth century', 58 was interlinked with Japan's aspiration to climb the ladder of the 'standard of civilization' and, thus, be included among the 'civilized nations'.This status carried the entitlement to 'equal sovereign rights' in the doctrinally influential three-tiered categorization of 'peoples' into the categories of 'civilized, semicivilized and savages' 59 espoused by James Lorimer in 1883. 60oon thereafter, in Spain, the Revista de Derecho Internacional y Política Exterior was founded by the Marquis de Olivart in Madrid in 1905.The journal was presented by its owner and director as the 'first and only journal' published in Spain that 'is exclusively devoted to the study of international law in its two variants, public and private, and, as for what in both is relevant to, the study of comparative legislation and to the examination, divulgation and critique of the main questions of foreign policy'. 61ndeed, the journal was explicitly put at the service of 'those who know [international law] to be able to teach it, and those who ignore it, to be able to learn it and to use it in support of national interests'. 62This emphasis on the role of international law as part of the enterprise of national 'regeneration' in the outer realm was consonant with the recent loss of the last remnants of the Spanish overseas colonial empire at the hands of the USA's expansionist policies in the Spanish-American War of 1898.
In 1907, the launch of the American Journal of International Law (AJIL) was also directly linked to the effects of the 1898 Spanish-American war, the judicial and political aftermaths of which resulted in a definitive leap forward towards a new American overseas empire and inaugurated a new era of US military interventionism.The AJIL, the scientific vehicle of the American Society of International Law (ASIL), which was founded a year earlier, was the first international law journal, according to Koskenniemi, that broke 'the pattern (if it was such)' of previous journals of 'not pointing to any national and regional allegiance' in its title. 63The 'high-minded' dimension of what Francis Boyle referred to as the 'legalistic moralistic' 64 generation of international lawyers who had founded the ASIL was, nonetheless, combined since its origins with an underlying sovereigntist and instrumentalist approach to international law and with a strong ' Americanness' in the programme of works of the organization. 65As noted by Frederic Kirgis, those features had developed, since its inception, through a 'particular interest in what came to be called the Foreign Relations Law of the U.S. and, in international law issues of particular interest for the U.S.' 66 This attention to national state practice had a certain pedigree in the USA by this time.

It had been initiated by John Lambert Cadwalader who produced a one-volume Digest of Published Opinions of the Attorneys-General, and of the Leading Decisions of the Federal
Courts, with reference to International Law, Treaties and Kindred Subjects in 1877.This was followed by the three volumes of the Digest of International Law of the United States that Francis Wharton began publishing in 1886. 67This practice did not confine itself to the USA.It also extended to Europe.In London, from 1899 to 1904, William Darby, secretary of the Peace Society, prompted by an 1895 resolution adopted by the International Law Association in anticipation of the project for the establishment of a permanent court of arbitration, published four editions of his International Arbitration.The purpose of Darby's book was to present materials on 'the literary, political, and diplomatic work done in connection with international arbitration during the past 300 years'. 68In 1902, in Berne, Henri La Fontaine published Pasicrisie internationale: Histoire documentaire des arbitrages internationaux covering materials from 1794 to 1900. 69In 1905, in France, Albert de Geouffre de la Pradelle and Nicolas Politis began 'publishing a collection of arbitral opinions -the first series of international law case reports.' 70 Meanwhile, in the USA, the task initiated by Cadwalader was continued by John Basset Moore, who published his Digest of International Law in eight volumes the same year the ASIL was founded. 71This trend reached its peak in 1922, when Charles Cheney Hyde, building on Moore's Digest, published his International Law Chiefly as Interpreted and Applied by the United States. 72Published in two voluminous volumes that emphasized the experience and practice of international law from a North American perspective, Hyde wanted this book to 'express an attempt primarily to portray what the United States, through the agencies of its executive, legislative and judicial departments, has deemed to be the law of nations'. 73Although these series of works were deprived of any comparative ambition, they can be considered the antecedents of a judicial conception of 'comparative international law'.As advanced in the introduction, this aim was much later referred by Roberts to be one 'seeking to identify and interpret international law by engaging in comparative analyses of various domestic court decisions'. 74he rise of a foreign policy generation of 'lawyers qua lawyers', who reached the apex of their influence in shaping US foreign policy during the so-called 'progressive era' (1890s-1920s), 75 also influenced institutional developments in Latin America.
Among the extensive developments that James Brown Scott, who was credited by his ASIL's colleagues as 'our mentor, our engineer, our constant supporter from the beginning', 76 fostered during this period was the publication of a Spanish translation of the AJIL during a 10-year period from 1912 to 1922.Another of the initiatives that Brown Scott, by then director of the International Law Division of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, also fostered in 1912 was the co-foundation with Alejandro Alvarez of the American Institute of International Law. 77Each of the affiliated associations of the new institute became conceived as 'a centre for the study and investigation of questions of international law and the principles of justice by which they should be settled, each disseminating just principles of international law and creating within each country a public opinion on their behalf '. 78 One of those 'national' associations published the first periodical of international law published in Latin America, the Anuario de la Sociedad Cubana de Derecho internacional in 1917. 79

Geographical Expansion in the Americas and Consolidation in Europe during the Interwar Years
The year of the founding of the League of Nations has been depicted as a symbolic turning point in the standard periodization of the history of international law, 80 which is on a par with the 'etiological myth' -that is, a 'myth for the origin of things' -of the Treaty of Westphalia for the law of nations. 81The routine characterization of the interwar years as the 'foundational period of contemporary international law' 82 owes much to the pivotal role of the League as a transmission belt from a pre-institutional, to a protoinstitutionalized, world order. 83The quickening of interest in international law in different countries that came in the wake of this first 'move to institutions' was mirrored in the geographical expansion of 'national' journals of international law to the Americas and in the foundation of scientific periodicals in the field in Europe, including through their geographical expansion for the first time to the Nordic countries and, leaving aside some short-lived precedents in Russia, to the Eastern European countries. 84espite the long-standing relationship of the Latin American region with international law, or forms thereof, 85 the first periodical of international law was, as earlier noted, not published therein until the last stages of World War I.The term 'international law', which was coined by Jeremy Bentham in the late 18th century, 86 first became widely used on the occasion of the independence of the Latin American republics, 87 and numerous doctrinal works were penned by Latin American authors on international law as an 'instrument in the process of nation building' during the 19th century. 88However, as noted by Arnulf Becker Lorca, it was not until the 1880s that international law began to 'play an important role in laying down one of the languages through which Latin Americans have discussed and contested their identity, politics, and place in the international world'. 89This coincided with the birth of the international codification movement, which became institutionalized in the first international associations, and with the first 'global' international conferences at The Hague in 1899 and 1907. 90Coinciding with a period when US imperialism in Latin America had become more accentuated, the Latin American states began to participate more actively in the international juridical sphere, reclaiming recognition of equality with European nations, pronouncing doctrines of non-intervention, such as the Drago Doctrine, 91 and postulating the recognition of a corpus of international law with Latin American particularities 92 amid projects for the regional codification of international law. 93These issues gathered momentum in the wake of the establishment of the League of Nations.This further stimulated internationalist debates on the cohabitation of universalism and regional particularism at a time when the Latin American countries were no longer disparagingly perceived as 'stand[ing] on the margin of international life'. 94n 1917, after the Anuario of the Cuban Society was established, both the Revista Mexicana de Derecho Internacional (1919) and the Revista Argentina de Derecho Internacional (1920) were founded within their respective national societies associated with the Annuaire de l'Institut de droit International (AIDI).The establishment of these associations had already been fostered by efforts of hemispheric diffusion of the USA's constitutional model of the secretary of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and the first editor-in-chief of the AJIL, James Brown Scott.95 The Spanish translation of the AJIL, which, as already noted, was published from 1912 to 1922, was replaced by the Revista de Derecho Internacional.This was published under the aegis of the AIDI and directed by Antonio de Bustamante in La Habana from 1922 onwards.Brown Scott hoped that this new Revista de Derecho Internacional could 'find favour in the sight of Spanish-American publicists, serving as a convenient means of communication and interpreting the enlightened views of the Spanish-speaking world to the world at large'.96 The new breed of 'national' post-war international law periodicals expanded in Latin America with the release of a few other 'international' journals issued by their respective national societies of international law.These included the Revista Dominicana de Derecho Internacional in 1927, the Anuario de la Sociedad Panameña de Derecho Internacional in 1930 and the Revista Peruana de Derecho Internacional in 1941.
Meanwhile, in Britain, periodicals of international law were stalled until the outbreak of World War I.According to James Crawford, the reason for the dearth of a British university international law tradition in the 19th century was that 'its local focus was the Foreign Office and the embassies and lawyers' chambers in London rather than the universities'. 97However, international law began to take academic hold in the aftermath of World War I and the establishment of the League of Nations.As James Brierly has remarked, this fostered 'a quickening of interest in the subject in this country and others'. 98This academic interest, as we have seen, was reflected in the publishing of the Transactions of the Grotius Society and in the change of title of the Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation to the Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law in 1918.The newfound academic interest in international law in the United Kingdom was reflected in the establishment of the Royal Institute of International Affairs in London in 1919 and in the publication of its journal, coupled with the founding of the first chairs in international relations at both Aberyswyth University and the London School of Economics in the early 1920s. 99In 1920, the British Yearbook of International Law was added to the pre-war batch of new international law journals that had begun to highlight an explicit national allegiance in their title.However, the new academic appeal of international law in post-war Britain should be seen in relative terms; indeed, by 1921, there were 'only 10 public teachers of international law in the United Kingdom'. 100n other parts of Europe, the pre-war academic study of international law was also being spurred on further by the establishment of the League of Nations and, soon thereafter, by the establishment of the Hague Academy of International Law in 1923.The interwar years were also a period rich in internationalist associations, lending greater impetus to the creation of new specialized publications.In 1923, in Geneva, the International Law Association founded the Revue de droit international, des sciences 96 Brown Scott, 'The Revista de Derecho Internacional', 16 AJIL (1922)  diplomatiques, politiques, et sociales, which became the first journal devoted to international law in Switzerland.In Spain, the rise in prestige of the School of Salamanca and the Spanish classics of international law -one of the characteristic features of the discipline in the interwar period 101 -was greatly fostered by the establishment of the Asociación Francisco de Vitoria in 1926 in Madrid and by its homonymous Anuario, which began publication in 1928.In France, during a period characterized by the scientific production of great doctrinal constructions that interrogated 'the existence and nature of international, and correspondingly, the functions and goals that it can or ought to pursue', the already existing specialized journals were supplemented by the Revue internationale française du droit des gens in 1936.102 In the Soviet Union, following the short-lived precedents in imperial Russia in 1880 and 1897, Soviet international law scholars during the interwar years mostly relied 'on general international affairs and law media to publish their doctrinal contributions'.103 However, in 1927, an international law section of the Society of Persons Active in Soviet Law was established in conjunction to Moscow State University, gradually becoming the 'center of international legal research in Moscow'.104 It is within this framework, as studied by William Butler, that the short-lived journal Mezhdunarodnoe pravo was established in 1928 with an editorial board that included among its members Evgeny Korovin and Evgeny Pashukanis.The president of the Society and the rector of Moscow University wrote the preface of the inaugural issue, making it clear how, from the 'standpoint of Marxist methodology' the purpose of the new journal was to disclose to the 'eyes of the toiling people of the entire world the predatory class nature of contemporary international legal norms reflecting the struggle of the predominant classes in a bourgeois society'.105 Far more resilient than this first Soviet journal of international law was the first sub-regional journal of international law.This was published in the Nordic countries from 1930 onwards by Erik Bruel as the Nordisk tidsskrift for international ret, and it covered relevant developments in Iceland, Finland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark.106 At the same time, academic publishing in international law extended for the first time beyond imperial Russia and the Soviet Union to Eastern Europe where the Annuaire de l'Association Yougoslave de droit international was released in three volumes from 1931 to 1937 (see Figure 2).107 After World War I in Germany, the Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Völkerrecht, which was named after the German Society of International Law, which had been founded in 1917, was published in Berlin from 1919 to 1927.Also in Germany, the Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht began publication in 1929.108 The rise of Adolf Hitler to power brought in its wake 101 See I. de la Rasilla, In the Shadow of Vitoria: A History of International Law in Spain, 1770-1953 (2017).102 Jouannet, supra note 52, at 8. 103 Butler, supra note 11, at 371. 104 Ibid.105 Vyshinskii, 'Predislovie', 1 Mezhdunarodnoe pravo (1928) 1, cited in Butler, supra note 11, at 372. 106 1 Nordisk tidsskrift for international ret (1930).107 1 Annuaire de l'Association Yougoslave de droit international (1931).108  the self-dissolution of the German Association in 1933 and a series of university purges.109 As Michael Stolleis has noted, these had an impact 'on the boards of legal journals, thus implying in some cases the emergence of new approaches which were more in line with the dominant political orientation'.110 In Italy, according to its most viral proponents, attempts to produce an Italian autochthonous fascist doctrine of international law, led by Benito Mussolini since 1922, faced the 'old dogmatism [that] is most stubbornly persistent in the area of international law'. More aligned

The Coming of Age of International Law Journals during the Cold War, 1945-1989
By the time of the beginning of World War II, there were, or had existed, approximately 40 journals of international law, most of which had surged in Europe, some of them in the Americas and one in Japan.This number would grow exponentially during the Cold War period.The main characteristics of the history of doctrinal periodical literature in international law from 1945 to 1989 included, first, the continuous consolidation of 'national' journals of international law among Western European countries and their geographical extension for the first time, notwithstanding the Japanese precedent in 1902, beyond Europe and the Americas, towards Asia and Oceania and, occasionally, also towards the Middle East and Africa.Second, it also included the renaissance of the comparative caveat in international law journals.This trend began with the International and Comparative Law Quarterly founded in London in 1952 and continued through student-run journals in the USA and the Commonwealth countries from the early 1970s onwards.Third, there was the emergence of the first wave of student-run university journals of international law in the USA, beginning with the Harvard International Law Club Bulletin in 1959.And, fourth, there was the emergence of the first scientific journals on specialized sectors of international law and of the first 'school' journals of international law under the influence of the new 'doctrinal' schools or new methodological approaches to the study of the discipline.

A Expansion of the 'National' in International Law Journals
As World War II came to an end, a series of short-lived periodicals on international law emerged in Africa and the Middle East.The first international law journal in Africa was published by the Egyptian Society of International Law from 1945 to 1950 in Alexandria. 116In the Middle East, the Jewish Yearbook of international Law, published in Jerusalem in 1948, was the first periodical of international law to show a religious or confessional allegiance in its title. 117Also short-lived were the first 114 Bartolini, supra note 111. 115 and the second 'Nordic' journal of international law, which was edited by Alf Ross in Denmark from 1949 to 1951. 119Far more resilient were the first 'national' journals of international law published in Switzerland in 1944 120 and in Greece in 1948, 121 with articles and practical information having a special bearing upon Swiss and Greek interests and developments respectively.Also resistant to the avatars of time proved to be the new Argentinian international law journal published in Rosario from 1949 onwards. 122 remarkable feature of this new harvest of international law journals in the late 1940s was the swift founding of new scientific journals of international law in the defeated powers of World War II.In Germany, the Jahrbuch für internationales und ausländisches öffentliches Recht started publication in 1948 in the same year as the Archiv des Völkerrechts.A year later, in 1949, the German Society of International Law, which had been dissolved in 1933, was refounded. 123The move to academic journals of international law continued in Germany throughout the early and mid-1950s with the publication of several new periodicals focused on national developments and published in the vernacular language. 124The same post-war pattern took place in Italy where some of the international law journals that had been discontinued during the war resumed their activities.These included post-fascist versions of Jus gentium: diritto delle relazioni internazionali, which was published in Rome, and of Annali di Diritto Internazionale after 1949.These were subsequently followed by other periodicals written in Italian, including the re-emergence of Rivista di diritto internazionale in 1953. 125Among the new journals that emerged after the war was La Comunità Internazionale, which was established in 1946 with Ago as its chief editor from 1947 onwards.Also within the former sphere of the Axis powers, in Spain, an internationally isolated country, which was trying to cope with the sanctions imposed by the UN General Assembly against the Franco regime from 1946 onwards, 126 the Spanish Falange's intelligentsia joined the 'national' trend with its own Revista Española de Derecho Internacional in 1948. 127hroughout the 1950s, a series of new 'national' journals of international law followed suit, extending the 'national' label in international law journals throughout Europe, Latin America and Asia.In Western Europe, the 'national' label extended to the Netherlands in 1953, 128 to France in 1955 129 and, in partnership with Spain, to Portugal in 1959. 130In Eastern Europe, following in the footsteps of the Yugoslavian Annuaire that had existed since the 1930s, the Jugoslovenska revija za medunarodno pravo was published in Belgrade in 1954. 131In the Soviet Union, almost 98 years after Martens's Russian Society of International Law was established in 1880, 132 the formation of the Soviet Association of International Law led to the publication of the Sovetskii Ezhegodnik Mezhdunarodnogo Prava in 1958. 133After a series of previous journals had taken root in the Caribbean and Central America in the interwar period, the Revista de la Asociación Guatemalteca de Derecho Internacional began publication in Guatemala in 1954.In Asia, soon after the armistice that put an end to the Korean War, the first journal of international law was established in South Korea in 1956. 134he Asian expansion of international law periodicals was soon followed by Japan, two years after its admission to the United Nations in 1956, 135 and India joined the 'national' trend of international law journals with its own Indian Journal of International Law in 1960, a year after the foundation of the Indian Society of International Law. 136he 'national' trend of international law periodicals continued extending throughout the 1960s, particularly in the form of yearbooks.In both North America -in Canada in 1963 137 -and in South America -in Uruguay in 1962 138 and Ecuador in 1965 139 -new yearbooks of international law were established.In Asia, two countries inaugurated their own international law journals -the Philippines in 1962 140 and Taiwan in 1964. 141In Western Europe, Belgium inaugurated its national yearbook in 1965, 142 followed closely by Eastern Europe -Poland in 1966 143 and Romania in 1967. 144The mid-1960s also saw the first extension of the trend of national yearbooks towards Oceania 145 and the establishment of the first international law periodical in Southern Africa. 146The 'national' trend of periodicals of international law continued expanding throughout the 1970s and 1980s.In Western and Central Europe, new 128 1 Netherlands International Law Review (1953). 1291 AFDI (1955). 1301 Anuario Hispano-Luso-Americano de Derecho internacional (1959). 1311 Jugoslovenska revija za medjunarodno parvo (1954). 132Butler and Ivanenko, supra note 42. 1331 Soviet Yearbook of International Law (1958). 1341 Korean Journal of International Law (1956). 1351 Japanese Annual of International Law (1958). 1361 Indian Journal of International Law (1959). 1371 Canadian Yearbook of International Law (1961). 1381 Anuario uruguayo de Derecho Internacional (1962). 1391 Anuario ecuatoriano de Derecho internacional (1965). 1401 Philippine International Law Journal (1962). 1411 Chung-kuo kuo chi fa hsüeh hui nien pao / Annals of the Chinese Society of International Law (1964). 1421 Revue Belge de Droit International (1965). 1431 Polish Yearbook of International Law (1966). 1441 Revue roumaine d'études internationales (1967). 1451 Australian Yearbook of International Law (1965). 146 'national' journals of international law were added in the Netherlands in 1970, 147 Spain in 1974, 148 Italy in 1975 149 and Austria in 1977. 150In the Americas, Uruguay followed the same track in 1972, 151 Argentina in 1983 152 and, in Africa, South Africa followed in 1975 153 and Nigeria in 1976. 154Throughout the 1980s, the national labelling also included, for the first time, territories in a quest for self-determination such as Quebec 155 and Palestine. 156During this same decade, the Asian continent also saw the emergence of 'national' journals of international law in Thailand 157 and Sri Lanka. 158

B The Retrieval of the Comparative Legal Dimension
Following its earlier rise and fall in the late 19th century, the comparative dimension in international law journals experienced a renaissance in the aftermath of World War II, particularly in common law countries.In the United Kingdom, the phenomenon of émigré legal scholars helped bring the comparative-international title back to the fore by the early 1950s. 159The establishment of the Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law series in 1946160 was followed by the International and Comparative Law Quarterly (ICLQ), which was established under the auspices of the Society of Comparative Legislation in 1952.At the time, the ICLQ prided itself in being 'the only journal which offered the reader coverage of comparative law as well as public and private international law'. 161This marriage of international and comparative law, which resulted from the coming together of the Journal of Comparative Legislation and the International Law Quarterly, which had been founded by the Grotius Society in 1947, would prove to have a special appeal in former British colonies and Commonwealth countries,162 especially in combination, as we are about to see, with the phenomenon of student-edited journals in international law that spread throughout the USA from the early 1960s onwards (see Figure 3). 1471 Netherlands Yearbook of International Law (1970). 1481 Anuario español de Derecho internacional (1974). 1491 Italian Yearbook of International Law (1975). 1501 Österreichische Zeitschrift für öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht (1977). 1511 Revista uruguaya de derecho internacional (1972). 1521 Anuario Argentino de Derecho Internacional (1983). 1531 South African Yearbook of International Law (1975). 1541 Nigerian Annual of International Law (1976). 1551 Revue Quebecoise de droit international(1984). 156 1 Palestine Yearbook of International Law (1984). 1571 Thailand Yearbook of International and Comparative Law (1986). 1581 Sri Lanka Journal of International Law (1989). 159Jolowicz, supra note 36, at 348-350.

C The First Wave of University International Law Journals
One of the most characteristic features of the post-1945 period in the global history of international law periodicals is the emergence of a new breed of American university international law journals.This move followed two tracks.The first was initiated by the Harvard International Law Club Bulletin, which began publication in 1959 and is the oldest 'university' journal of international law in the USA. 163This was soon followed by the 'oldest continuously published' specialized university journal of international law in the USA, the Virginia Journal of International Law, in 1960, 164 trailed by other international law journals from US elite law schools, including Columbia in 1962, 165 Stanford in 1966, Cornell in 1967 and both New York University and Western Case Reserve University in 1968. 166During the following decades, this pattern continued in the USA with the emergence of dozens of other international law periodicals affiliated with both private and state universities. 167he second track was that of international and comparative law journals.This also spread through US universities where the American Association for the Comparative Study of Law, founded in 1951, began publication of its own journal, the American Journal of Comparative Law, in 1952. 168The trend that was revamped by the ICLQ in 1952 developed in the USA from the early 1970s up to the present day when the dozens of existing university comparative and international law journals in the USA make up a scholarly category of their own. 169A further peculiarity of the harvest of 'university' journals during this period is the impact of 'doctrinal' schools on the creation of new international law periodicals in the USA.In 1961, the Columbia Transnational Law Journal was initiated by Wolfgang Friedman at Columbia University, and, in 1971, the Journal of International Law and Economics was founded at George Washington University. 170At Yale Law School, the New Haven School, also variously known as policy-oriented jurisprudence, inaugurated its own Yale Journal of World Public Order in 1974. 171

D The First Specialized International Law Journals
The mid-1960s also witnessed the emergence of the first specialized journals of international law, notably in the areas of international human rights law and the law of the sea.Published since 1968, the Columbia Human Rights Law Review was the first law school's journal on human rights in the USA dedicated to the analysis and discussion of human rights and civil liberties under both domestic and international law.Beyond the USA, this trend would continue internationally, including throughout Israel, 172 the Nordic countries, 173 Canada, 174 Italy 175 and others in the 1970s and 1980s.Partly prompted by the holding of the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea between 1973 and 1982, specialized periodicals on the law of the sea began publishing in the early 1970s.This batch of new journals included journals such as Ocean Development and International Law with the stated purpose to 'disseminate responsible and informed discussion of issues and policies concerning development, use and regulation of the ocean and its contents' since 1973. 176Amid a remarkable move towards specialization in doctrinal periodical literature in international law, this specializing trend continued throughout the 1980s and, as will now be examined, constitutes one of the most remarkable features of the global contemporary landscape of international law periodicals. 177

Moving towards the Present: Mushrooming, Specialization, Globalism and Hybridization
By the end of the Cold War, international law periodicals operating in the world, although already quite numerous, remained very unevenly distributed in geographical terms.As we have seen, the long Cold War period brought about a global expansion of the 'national' title in international law journals both within and beyond Western countries.Moreover, the mushrooming of university student-run journals in the USA since the early 1960s made it the country where the greatest proportion of periodical publications in international law were being published by the time of the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989.The post-1989 period has witnessed the consolidation of these earlier tendencies, although subsequent and more contemporary developments have, on occasion, added new features to them.Alongside them, a new generational breed of international law periodicals has grown significantly during the last 25 years.The most contemporary generation of international law periodicals presents a series of novel features.These new features mirror the impact of several phenomena on the field of international law.First, the geographical extension of processes of institutional regionalization; second, the expansion and diversification of the international legal order; third, the disciplinary embracement of globalization; fourth, the move towards interdisciplinarity in international legal scholarship and, finally, the sea change brought by the impact of the new technologies in academic publishing in international law.

A Consolidation of Earlier Trends with New Provisos
The deepening and widening geographical expansion of the 'national' label in the titles of international law journals across the world has remained a constant feature during the last 25 years.In Eastern Europe, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the adoption of 'national' titles in the international law journals published in the region has been widespread.Since 1990, new scientific periodicals, often in the form of national yearbooks and published in English, have taken hold, inter alia, in Finland, 178 the Russian Federation, 179 the Baltic states, 180 Slovakia, the Czech Republic 181 and Armenia. 182ollowing a trend initiated for Western Europe by Italy in 1975, 183 Western European countries such as Spain 184 or the Republic of Ireland 185 have also begun publishing a new class of 'national' yearbooks in English, attracting an autochthonous production on topics related to their specific countries.A remarkable feature within Europe has also been the extension of a partial editorial blending of 'national' journals on international law and European law in countries such as Holland, 186 Switzerland, 187 Poland 188 and Hungary, 189 'au fur et à mesure' the European national sovereign state has been losing its Hobbesian monopoly over the ius in omnia et omnes.
Other regions of the globe have also witnessed the continuous extension of the 'national' trend in their international law journals.In Latin America, following on from an earlier trend with its roots in the aftermath of World War I, the publication of new yearbooks and 'national' journals in international law has increased considerably in countries such as Brazil, 190 Argentine, 191 Mexico, 192 Colombia 193 and Costa Rica. 194ince the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the 'national' title has also continued to extend to Asia, where the wave of the global extension of 'national' journals of international law touched, for the first time, the coasts of Asian countries like the People's Republic of China, 195 Singapore 196 and Indonesia. 197To the far southeast, the 'national' trend of international periodicals has also further extended to Australia 198 and, for the first time, to the confines of New Zealand. 199However, with the exceptions already noted of a series of short-lived precedents in Egypt in the late 1940s, South Africa in the 1960s, and, again, South Africa and Nigeria in the mid-1970s, the 'national' caveat in international law journals has barely taken root in Africa, notwithstanding a recent example provided by Ethiopia. 200The African continent, and parts thereof, remain mostly covered by a new 'regional' label attached to new international law journals, in what is, as we shall see, one of the novelties brought about by the new generation of post-1989 international journals.Nor has the 'national' trend of international law journals appeared to have developed substantially in the Middle East or in the broader 'Islamic world' as of yet.
Since 1989, the proliferation of journals of international law that mention the name of the university in their title has, on the other hand, persisted.This trend, initiated in the early 1960s in the USA, has continued developing in North America, encompassing, in doing so, the name of particular states in the wake of its homonymous universities such as Texas, Virginia, Wisconsin, Arizona, Michigan and others.Since the early 1990s, the USA has also seen, pursuant to a pattern initiated in the early 1970s, the continuous expansion of the double-track of international and comparative law journals. 201Furthermore, a new 'crop' of US student-run university journals has reflected the growing specialization of the field of international law. 202inally, since the late 1980s and 1990s, international law periodicals have also witnessed a gradual extension of the 'university name' to journals published in Europe.This is illustrated by journals of international law by the likes of Leiden, 203 the Max Planck Institute, 204 Gottingen, 205 Cambridge 206 or Miskolc. 207To them, one should add another batch of international law journals that also bear the name of universities from Australia 208 or, emergently, from the People's Republic of China. 209

B New Features: Regionalization, Specialization, Globalism, Interdisciplinarization and New Technologies
Although impacted by earlier trends, the most contemporary generation of titles presents a series of novel features.These mirror, first, the growth and deepening of institutional regionalization processes across the globe; second, the expansion and diversification of the international legal field and the emergence of new specialized sub-disciplines; third, the move towards interdisciplinarity in international legal scholarship; fourth, the impact of the phenomenon of globalization and, fifth, the impact of the so-called third Industrial Revolution, comprising the new technologies in academic publishing in the field of international law.Their new features -often found combined -will be briefly surveyed in turn.
The deepening of regional integration processes over the globe is one of the characteristic features of the last 25 years that has impacted more acutely on international law journals during the same period.The European Journal of International Law in 1990 set the pace for a tendency that has spread over Africa,210 Asia 211 and other regional areas such as Latin America 212 during the last quarter of a century.With the Nordic countries setting a precedent from 1930 onwards, there has also been a move towards sub-regionalization in the title and coverage of international law journals.This has included the Baltic states, 213 East Asia, 214 and Asia-Pacific. 215Moreover, regionalization has begun more recently to blend with another of the most characteristic and transversal features in academic publishing in international law in the last 25 years.New academic initiatives bearing the titles of European, 216 African, Asian 217 and Latin American 218 journals in specialized sectors of the discipline such as international environmental law, international commercial law, international criminal law, international human rights and international humanitarian law have also emerged in recent years.These new journals have been associated, on occasion, with the establishment of regional societies of international law that have also mushroomed during the last three lustra or so. 219Alongside their embrace of regionalization, international law journals have to some degree also mirrored a new move towards the local.Following an older category of journals, which bear by association the label of sub-national entities and territories with a claim to self-determination that emerged in the 1980s, a series of journals has developed that have adopted, following a pattern initiated by the Heidelberg Journal of International Law, 220 the names of cities with a long-standing international law tradition such as The Hague 221 or, like the latest addition, London. 222econd, although generalist journals still remain as a whole the norm in international law publishing (although, on occasion, they are provided with corresponding specialized sub-sections), the move towards specialized academic publishing has mirrored the expansion and diversification experienced by the field of international law in the last two-and-a-half decades.Although with precedents in the areas of human rights and the law of the sea, the magnitude and character of this move towards specialization has been unparalleled during the post-Cold War era.A remarkable expansion of this specializing trend has taken place, through different languages, in the field of international human rights law journals 223 and the law of the sea. 224Specialization has also extended to particular sub-fields in the broad area of international law of human dignity, including international humanitarian law, 225 international refugee law 226 and international minorities law. 227Moreover, the proliferation of specialized international law regimes accompanied by international courts and tribunals with special jurisdiction has also fostered a trend towards academic specialization for international law journals in the areas of international criminal law, 228 economic international law 229 and international trade law. 230The remarkable trend towards specialization in international academic law publishing also comprises the areas of international environmental law 231 and special sectors within it such as climate change, 232 international water law, 233 international wildlife law 234 as well as transsub-disciplinary areas such the one that has emerged from the academic study of the relationship between the environment and human rights. 235Another area that has also reflected the trend towards specialization that has accompanied the proliferation of international courts and tribunals and arbitral and other international adjudicative mechanisms is the field of international dispute settlement. 236pecialization, moreover, has extended to traditional international public law areas such as the regulation of the use of force in international law, 237 while constitutional analogies within the core of this discipline have contributed to define the intellectual scope of new journals at the interstices of international law and constitutional law. 238he development of fields as diverse as that of 'state practice' in the field of international law239 and those of international legal theory and the philosophy of international law 240 has also expanded.The impetus given to the work of a new breed of historians of international law by the establishment of the first journals in the most transversal and generalist of all specialized areas of international law -the hitherto neglected field of the history of international law 241 -must be also emphasized.More widely, the increase of specialization and the growing importance of non-state actors have brought about in their wake specialized journals in fields such as the law of international organizations, 242 including the law of the United Nations, 243 and of non-state actors. 244Geographically speaking, the contemporary tendency towards specialization has been particularly prevalent in Western Europe and the USA.However, as we have already seen, the move towards academic specialized publishing in international law has also already begun to impact on the growth of sub-disciplinary regional journals across the globe.
In the contemporary 'knowledge society', the scientific and intellectual desire felt by specialists in every field to address each other in terms that honour the depth and breadth of their expert knowledge and aim at contributing to the continuous progress of their respective areas of specialization and the embedded sub-disciplines within them is broadly cherished. 245However, the modern reverence towards specialized scholarship does not easily lend itself towards producing the sort of academic knowledge that is easily understood or accessible beyond the strict boundaries of the specialized area within which it has emerged.Often the possibility of scholarly dialogue and synergic communication between experts from specialized fields and those who do not possess the same pigeonholed specialization is severely impaired.This acknowledgement has fostered the phenomenon of interdisciplinarity understood as an effort of 'knowledge production that cross(es) or bridge(s) disciplinary boundaries'. 246As noted by Robert Frodeman 'at its best, interdisciplinarity represents an innovation in knowledge production -making knowledge more relevant, balancing incommensurable claims and perspectives, and raising questions concerning the nature and viability of expertise'. 247Consequently, new journals have begun to emerge in interdisciplinary sectors such as transitional justice, 248 the global responsibility to protect, 249 peacekeeping 250 and others.The impact of new interdisciplinary methodological 'doctrinal schools' that emerged in the 1990s, on the other hand, can also be observed in the new hybrid journals that exist today at the interstices of international law and political science/ international relations. 251lso contributing to the breaking up of former boundaries of the discipline, globalization is the fourth defining feature of the last 25 years and is reflected in the title and scope of a new breed of journals.Responding to the emergence of a variety of 'globals' in the discipline, such as global governance, global administrative law or global law, a post-1989 'harvest' of academic journals has surged.Aimed at nurturing the perspective of the 'global' jurist', 252 these new journals bear in their titles the new identifiers of global governance 253 and global constitutionalism 254 or, more traditionally, of the 'international community', while others, in their turn, have revitalized the area of transnational legal studies. 255inally, no survey of the transformation affecting international law journals in the last quarter of a century can afford to ignore the effects of the revolution brought about by new technologies, and, in particular, the World Wide Web, on academic publishing in international law matters.It is beyond the scope of this bird's-eye view of the history of international law journals to analyse the profound transformation of, and impact on, the research habits among scholars of international law brought about by the introduction of the Internet, or the effects on academic publishing in international law of the policies regarding open access to international law research materials, through massive research repositories such as the Social Science Research Network.It is also beyond the scope of this work to examine how the digital revolution has led to a proliferation of international law blogs 256 and the impact of blind peer review policies or how online academic publishing in international law has engendered an industry of new metrics, impact factors and journal rankings and what their long-term effects on academic careers will be.It shall suffice to note that while the digital age has made online publishing for all types of international law journals the rule, there has been, in parallel, a remarkable proliferation of 'online-only' journals of international law. 257Also remarkable in this context is the gradual emergence of new 'online-only' parallel versions of some of the most well-established journals on international law issues, such as the AJIL, the Harvard Journal of International Law or the Yale Journal of International Law.These developments in the so-called 'age of cyber-space' have prompted international law journal editors such as Larissa van den Herik and Jean d'Aspremont to consider that 'it is a foregone conclusion that the era of paper journals is coming to an end'. 258

Conclusion: The Road Ahead?
The study of the history of international law as seen through the development of international law journals is, as noted in the introduction, in its infancy.Far more investigation would be required to begin to distil precise patterns of causality, while allowing for national features, geographical variation and the impact of transnational factors, to assess the historical development of the prolific progeny of La Revue de droit international et de la législation comparée since 1869.This future investigation would contribute to a better international comparative sense of historical correlation between the establishment of international law journals and, inter alia, sovereign independence; the economic and cultural development of different countries and regions; imperialist trends; the processes of regional integration; international associational movements and universities or the role of particularly influential figures and doctrinal schools in shaping the transnational historical scientific progress of the field from different nationally and geographically situated standpoints and historical contexts over time.The global history of international law journals is made by the history of each and every one of these topics.
However, as academic publishing in international law periodicals approaches the commemoration of its 150th anniversary, two contemporary features may be worthy of attention in conclusion.The first is the contemporary, yet, historically speaking, relatively recent, dominance of the English language as the contemporary hegemonic vehicle of scientific communication for the 'teachings of publicists' in international law journals. 259The second deals with what may, perhaps, lie ahead in the movement towards specialization in the field of international law, which has, epistemologically speaking, defined the last quarter of a century in international legal scholarship.At the beginning of this very short journey over almost 150 years of periodical academic publishing in international law, we saw that the first journals of international law were published in French (1869), Russian (1880), Spanish (1887), German (1890), Italian (1898) and Japanese (1902) respectively.The English language was, indeed, a relative latecomer to the field of international law journals.It was not until 38 years after the establishment of RDILC that the first periodical of international law appeared in English in 1907.The relative marginality of English in terms of the number of journals did not change during the interwar period.Even after World War II, periodicals published in languages other than English remained cumulatively dominant on a global scale.It was not until the mid-1970s, in fact, that international law journals started to become an English language-dominated area, spurred by the development of student-run university journals in the USA.
Today, the almost absolute linguistic monopoly of English has almost totally overshadowed the use of French in international law circles.Although due to the cultural lasting radiation of 'l'ancienne langue de la diplomatie' and the bilingual character of the case law of the International Court of Justice, French maintains its academic status among cultivated international legal elites, its use in periodical publications in international law has been in steady decline for a very long time.Only Spanish has substantially increased its presence in academic publishing in the field, judging by the current number of academic international law journals with a long tradition, as we have seen, in Spanish-speaking countries and the growing radiation of the Spanish language over the Americas.In fact, based on current trends and indicators, it may be reasonable to conclude that the Spanish language is set to emerge as the second lingua franca for the publication of international legal scholarship in international law journals in the 21st century.
Besides the ever-increasing monopoly of English in international legal periodicals, another of the most remarkable features -perhaps, in fact, the most remarkable one beyond the sea change brought about by the new digital age -is the impact of the expansion and diversification of international law on the new move towards specialization in international law journals. 260This move is perfectly aligned with what Michael Gibbons has called 'Mode 1' of knowledge production.This 'Mode 1' presupposes: a model of intellectual history whereby increasingly specialized disciplines are seen as the natural outgrowth of the knowledge production process, which is envisaged as a kind of organism that develops functionally differentiated parts (aka disciplines and sub-disciplines) over time as its investigations become more deeply embedded in their fields of inquiry. 261wever, along with the specialization of the social sciences that results from 'Mode 1 of knowledge production', there is always a parallel phenomenon of 'hybridization' in the social sciences; otherwise, the processes by which 'scholars combine two or more specialisms in a way that harnesses the power of each'. 262Judged by the indicators that doctrinal academic publishing in international law provides us with in the present stage of historical development of the discipline, international legal studies remain invested in a disciplinary process of global geographical expansion and specialization that has not yet substantially crossed the threshold of 'Mode 2 of knowledge production'.This is conventionally understood as an attempt to 'bridge the epistemic gaps' that have emerged between the disciplines as a result of the increasing specialization. 263ode 2 of knowledge production 'leads to the kind of inter-disciplinarity … that is often called "trans-disciplinary" and includes topics that are, at least initially, defined in categories of broader social relevance than normally found in academia'. 264It also often channels an 'effort to make knowledge products more pertinent to non-academic actors'. 265Among the drivers that may influence a gradual development in the direction of 'Mode 2 of knowledge production' in the future is the fact that interdisciplinarity is particularly useful in developing enlightening 'pedagogies in higher education', which promote 'integrative learning'. 266According to the Association of American Colleges and Universities, integrative learning 'comes in many varieties: connection skills and knowledge from multiple sources and experiences; applying theory to practice in various settings; utilizing diverse and even contradictory points of view; and, understanding issues or positions contextually'. 267This development has been spurred on by the possibilities brought about by new technologies and advances in cognitive science and neuroscience.Both have spawned research into learning styles and have led to the proliferation of a multiplicity and diversification of approaches to learning-centred teaching that 'invite multidisciplinary perspectives and opportunities for interdisciplinary integration'. 268hatever may lie ahead in the development of periodical academic publishing in international law for the 21st century, be it a rise of the use of the Spanish language and/or a new generation of transdisciplinary journals made possible by new technological and digital innovations informed by studies in cognitive science and neuroscience, almost 150 years of international law periodicals have fundamentally contributed to 'the public good of the production of knowledge about international law'. 269This global scientific patrimony of the discipline, which mirrors the course followed by the evolution of international over the last 150 years, should be cherished and preserved so that it can become, in time, the object of more detailed studies.

1
Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa (1968).