The CGI121 gene from Saccharomyces cerevisiae demonstrates genetic linkage to increased lag time under enological conditions


 Background

In winemaking, it is standard practice to ferment white wines at low temperatures (10–18 ºC). However, low temperatures increase the fermentation duration and risk of problem ferments, which can lead to significant costs. The length of the lag period at fermentation initiation is one parameter that is heavily impacted by low temperatures. Therefore, the identification of Saccharomyces cerevisiae genes with an impact on fermentation kinetics, such as lag time, is of interest for winemaking.
Results

We selected a set of 28 S. cerevisiae BY4743 single deletants based on a prior list of candidate open reading frames (ORFs) mapped to quantitative trait loci (QTLs) on chromosomes VII and XIII influencing the duration of fermentative lag time by bulk segregant analysis. Five out of 28 BY4743 deletants, Δapt1, Δcgi121, Δclb6, Δrps17a, and Δvma21, differed significantly in their fermentative lag phase duration compared to BY4743 in synthetic grape medium (SGM) at 15 ºC, over 72 h. Fermentation at 12.5 ºC for 528 h, to show a greater resolution of the lag times, identified the inability of BY4743 Δapt1 to initiate fermentation and confirmed the significantly longer lag times of the BY4743 Δcgi121, Δrps17a, and Δvma21 deletants. The three candidate ORFs were deleted in S. cerevisiae RM11-1a and S288C to perform single reciprocal hemizygosity analysis (RHA). RHA hybrids and single deletants of RM11-1a and S288C were fermented at 12.5 ºC in SGM. Lag time measurements confirmed genetic linkage of CGI121 on chromosome XIII, encoding a component of the EKC/KEOPS complex, to fermentative lag phase. Nucleotide sequences of RM11-1a and S288C CGI121 alleles differed by only one synonymous nucleotide suggesting that codon bias or positional effects might be responsible for the impact of this gene on lag phase duration.
Conclusion

This research demonstrates a new role of CGI121 in fermentative lag time in S. cerevisiae during fermentation and highlights the applicability of QTL analysis for investigating complex phenotypic traits in yeast, such as fermentation kinetics.


Background
The fermentation process for most white wines is performed at low temperatures (10-18 °C), as this range generally results in greater production and retention of desirable volatiles, leading to higher quality wines [1][2][3]. However, low temperatures also dramatically increase the time taken until fermentation completion and the risk of ferments becoming stuck or sluggish, which is potentially costly in terms of reduced winery space, product loss and decreased pro ts [4][5][6][7][8]. Low temperatures encountered during fermentation are particularly stressful to yeast and cause changes in cell membrane uidity, nutrient uptake and utilization, production of protective compounds, and a decrease in enzymatic reactions [6,[9][10][11]. A greater understanding of the genetics behind the ability of the wine yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, to acclimate to low temperatures and perform fermentation more e ciently in general, is therefore useful for the wine industry.
The duration of the lag period at the start of fermentation, de ned as the time between inoculation and the start of CO 2 release, and representing the time necessary for a yeast strain to acclimate to a new environment [12], is greatly impacted by fermentation temperature, along with other variables encountered by yeast during fermentation. The high osmolarity of grape musts, along with the low pH, low oxygen availability, oxidative stress, and potentially high levels of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ), low levels of nutrients such as nitrogen, and to a lesser and strain-speci c extent, phytosterols and thiamine, all contribute to the duration of the fermentative lag [13,14]. Different S. cerevisiae strains also exhibit large variation in their fermentative lag duration ranging from a few hours up to a few days [12,15]. The genetic regulation controlling phenotypic variation in the fermentative lag time of different yeast strains is as complex as the variables involved and largely polygenic [12,16]. During the rst few hours after inoculation in enological conditions, yeast must respond to the new environment with a dramatic metabolic reorganization, resulting in an increase in the synthesis of transcripts and proteins involved in carbon and nitrogen metabolism, cellular stress response, ribosomal biogenesis, protein synthesis and oxidative stress [17,18]. Within this response, there are likely to be numerous genes and QTLs that in uence the duration of the lag phase before the release of CO 2 . This response is more pronounced when the temperature of the must is low, lengthening the duration of the lag further [17,19].
So far, one QTL with strong linkage to lag phase has been mapped to the SSU1 gene, encoding the SO 2 e ux pump [20]. Removal of SO 2 from the yeast cell is carried out via Ssu1p, in which there are several allelic variants and translocation events in different strains that alter Ssu1p e ciency [13,21]. Bene cial genetic variants allow yeast to pump out SO 2 more e ciently, signi cantly reducing lag time. Previous work in our laboratory investigated QTLs linked to fermentation kinetics and found two regions, one of Chr. VII and one on Chr. XIII, that were signi cantly linked to fermentative lag [22]. Linkage analysis was performed on a set of 119/121 completely mapped (> 99% of the genome) F 1 progeny from a cross between haploid strains BY4716 and RM11-1a constructed by Brem et al. [23]. Due to the di culty in phenotyping lag phase in experiments with grape juice, and the large number of candidate genes within the con dence intervals surrounding the high LOD score peaks on Chr. VII (10 open reading frames ((ORFs) and Chr. VIII (34 ORFs), these 44 candidate genes were not investigated further. This previous identi cation of chromosomal regions linked to lag phase duration provides an excellent opportunity to investigate the causative genes using a controlled and reproducible fermentation medium, such as synthetic grape medium (SGM). Since single reciprocal hemizygosity analysis (RHA) was not feasible for 44 different genes, we rst aimed to test the lag duration of BY4743 single deletants of each candidate ORF identi ed in Deed et al. [22]. Those demonstrating variation in lag time compared to the BY4743 reference strain would be deleted in haploids RM11-1a and S288C, followed by the construction of RHA hybrids. Phenotyping of deletants and RHA hybrids would con rm genetic linkage to lag time during fermentation.

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First screening of 28 BY4743 deletion mutants fermented in SGM at 15 °C identi ed ve candidate ORFs that may in uence lag time Of the 44 S. cerevisiae genes identi ed within the 95% con dence intervals of the high LOD score peaks for QTLs on Chr. VII and Chr. XIII linked to fermentation lag duration in Deed et al. [22], 28 single gene deletion mutants were available from EUROSCARF (listed in Table 1). Of the 16 ORFs that were unavailable, seven were classi ed as essential genes and hence inviable in a null mutant according to the Saccharomyces Genome Database. The remaining nine either encoded transposable elements (six ORFs) or were classi ed as dubious and unlikely to encode a protein (three ORFs). Cumulative weight loss (g) of the 28 BY4743 deletants fermented in 100 mL SGM at 15 °C was measured at eight-hour intervals for 72 hours as a quick initial screen to identify whether any of the ORFs have an impact on the duration of the fermentative lag compared to the BY4743 reference ( Fig. 1A-D). Since it was not feasible to perform RHA on 28 different candidate genes, this initial step was conducted to narrow down the number of candidates. Due to the large number of fermentations in triplicate, the deletants were fermented in four separate batches, each with the BY4743 reference for standardization, and an uninoculated control as a measure of evaporation and to ensure there was no contamination.  Δapt1 and BY4743 Δcgi121, had two replicates each that had not yet left lag phase (Fig. 2D). For a useful comparison to be made against BY4743 (44.9 h), the lag times for these replicates were set at 70 h, giving an average duration of 63.5 h for BY4743 Δapt1 and 63.6 h for BY4743 Δcgi121, although the actual measure of lag time is likely to be longer for these deletants.
Further screening at 12.5 °C con rms that BY4743 single deletions of Δcgi121, Δrps17a, and Δvma1 signi cantly alter fermentative lag time Since the ve candidate genes identi ed above were selected across three different fermentation batches with a degree of noise, and with some strains still in fermentative lag or unable to ferment, a repeat single-batch 100-mL fermentation was performed for the ve deletants and BY4743 to con rm that the lag phase differences observed were repeatable. The fermentations were also performed over a longer timeframe (528 h) than was used previously to determine whether the mutants that did not initiate fermentation were still in lag phase or were unable to ferment. A temperature of 12.5 °C was selected to provide a greater resolution in lag phase duration compared to 15 °C, whilst maintaining an enologically relevant temperature. Figure 3 shows the weight loss curves at 12.5 °C for the ve deletants and BY4743. The results from the rst screening at 15 °C were conserved at 12.5 °C, with BY4743 and BY4743 Δclb1 demonstrating an earlier exit from fermentative lag compared to BY4743 Δcgi121, BY4743 Δrps17a, and BY4743 Δvma21. Surprisingly, with the extension of the fermentation timeframe, it was revealed that the performance of the Δapt1 deletant was equivalent to the uninoculated control, with no initiation of fermentation. The Δapt1 deletant was capable of growth in YPD in the fermentation precultures, suggesting that this strain may either be de cient in a speci c factor required for fermentation and/or the enological environment was not permissible for the growth of this strain. The lag phase duration was calculated for the remaining strains using a modi ed Gompertz curve-tting model to obtain greater accuracy compared to the intercept method used in the quick screen [24]. Overall, lag times at 12.5 °C compared to 15 °C were approximately two-fold longer, as expected when decreasing fermentation temperature [25,26] (Fig. 4). The lag times con rm the prior observations from the weight loss curves in Fig. 3, but with no signi cant difference between the lag times of two fastest strains, BY4743 (64.9 h) and BY4743 Δclb1 (59.1 h) (Fig. 4). The lag times of BY4743 Δcgi121 (149.6 h), BY4743 Δrps17a (130.7 h), and BY4743 Δvma21 (119.9 h) were not signi cantly different from one another based on the 95% con dence intervals, but were signi cantly longer than the lag times of BY4743 and BY4743 Δclb6.
To summarize, fermentation screening successfully identi ed three genes resulting in a longer lag phase when deleted (Δcgi121, Δrps17a, and Δvma21). These were further investigated using single RHA.
Construction of RM11-1a and S288C single gene deletions and RHA hybrids reveals that the CGI121 gene is linked to lag phase To determine whether any of the three candidates, CGI121 (Chr. XIII), RPS17a (Chr. XIII), or VMA21(Chr. VII), were responsible for the high LOD scores and genetic linkage to fermentative lag phase in the original 119 BY4716 × RM11-1a mapped progeny, single deletions of these three ORFs were constructed in two haploid S. cerevisiae strain backgrounds, RM11-1a (Hgm R ) and S288C. S288C was used as a substitute for BY4716, as in Deed et al. [22]. For the three candidate genes, all combinations of RM11-1a and S288C single deletants with the corresponding wild type were hybridized for RHA (Table 2). Successful hybridization was con rmed using microsatellite typing (Table 3).  based on the emergence from fermentative lag and rate of fermentation ( Fig. 5A-C). RM11-1a and S288C performed similarly, and in all cases exhibited a much shorter lag time compared to all RM11-1a and S288C single deletion mutants in Δcgi121, Δrps17a, and Δvma21, in agreement with the results observed for BY4743. This result con rms that the presence of CGI121, RPS17a and VMA1 results in faster lag times. The RM11-1a × S288C Δcgi121 hybrid appeared to exit fermentative lag at the same time as RM11-1a × S288C, while the lag phase of RM11-1a Δcgi121 × S288C was longer (Fig. 5A). There did not appear to be any difference between RM11-1a × S288C Δrps17a or RM11-1a Δrps17a × S288C in terms of fermentation performance, and potentially only a minor difference in lag time compared to RM11-1a × S288C (Fig. 5B).
The same trend was observed for RM11-1a × S288C Δvma21 and RM11-1a Δvma21 × S288C; however, both hemizygotes showed a noticeably longer lag time than RM11-1a × S288C (Fig. 5C). Figure 6A con rms that the lag times for RM11-1a and S288C Δcgi121, Δrps17a, and Δvma21 single deletants were signi cantly longer than non-deleted RM11-1a and S288C (average of 390 h compared to 126 h), as suggested from the weight loss curves in Fig. 5A-C. The long lag times of the deletion mutants corroborates the results shown by the BY4743 Δcgi121, Δrps17a, and Δvma21 deletants, but with even greater lag duration in RM11-1a and S288C due to the generally poor fermentation performance of haploid strains [27]. There were no signi cant differences between the non-deleted RM11-1a and S288C strains or between the corresponding pairs of RM11-1a and S288c single deletion mutants in Δcgi121, Δrps17a, or Δvma21. Additionally, there were no signi cant differences in lag time between RM11-1a Δcgi121, Δrps17a, and Δvma21 single deletants. The same result was observed for the S288C single deletants. For the RHA hybrids (Fig. 6B), the lag time of the RM11-1a × S288C Δcgi121 hybrid was not signi cantly different from the RM11-1a × S288C wild type (average of 122 h and 121 h, respectively). However, the RM11-1a Δcgi121 × S288C hybrid had a signi cantly longer lag time (149 h), suggesting that the absence of the RM11-1a CGI121 allele results in a lag time equivalent to wild type, but the S288C version results in increased lag time. This result is strong evidence towards the genetic linkage of CGI121 to fermentative lag and corresponds to mapping data indicating that the longer lag time is consistent with the presence of the S288C CGI121 allele and not the RM11-1a copy in the homozygous F 1 progeny from the original cross [22].
We aligned the RM11-1a and S288C nucleotide sequences of CGI121 in order to determine whether there were any allelic differences. However, nucleotide alignment showed that the sequences were 99% identical and the single base difference observed at 282 bp (G in RM11-1a and A in S288C) was synonymous, with both codons corresponding to a phenylalanine (AAG vs. AAA) ( Figure S1). Further alignment of 1 kb in front of the coding sequence of the RM11-1a and S288C CGI121 sequences did not uncover any nucleotide differences in the promoter region.
For RPS17a, as suggested by the weight loss curves, there was no signi cant difference in lag time between RM11-1a × S288C Δrps17a or RM11-1a Δrps17a × S288C, suggesting that neither allele is genetically linked to lag time, even though RM11-1a Δrps17a × S288C did have a slightly longer lag than RM11-1a × S288C (138 h vs. 121 h). RM11-1a × S288C Δvma21 and RM11-1a Δvma21 × S288C were also not signi cantly different from one another, with no allele-speci c impacts on lag duration for VMA21. The lag times for both hemizygotes were signi cantly longer than RM11-1a × S288C (144 and 149 h vs. 121 h) suggesting an additive effect with two copies of the VMA21 gene being bene cial for a shorter lag time.
Overall, these results have demonstrated a clear genetic linkage of CGI121 on Chr. XIII to fermentative lag time, and although RPS17a and VMA21 did not show allelic differences in terms of genetic linkage, both genes clearly affect the length of lag time when deleted.  [22] determined that the difference in CGI121 in the F 1 progeny was derived from the S288C allele. Transcriptomics data also demonstrated that CGI121 transcripts are upregulated by at least 2-fold in an M2 × S288C F 1 hybrid vs. the M2 parent during the early stages of fermentation (at 2% weight loss) at 12.5 °C, suggesting a key difference in the regulation of the S288C CGI121 allele. Although the single nucleotide difference between the RM11-1a and S288C CGI121 alleles was synonymous, it has been reported that synonymous mutations can result in differences in gene expression, with the use of particular codons signi cantly increasing transcript numbers [28]. Alternatively, there could be cis or trans regulatory effects depending on the allele position [23,29].
Role of CGI121 and evidence for impact on fermentative lag time CGI121 (YML036W) is a 652 bp gene encoding a small polypeptide component of the endopeptidase-like and kinase associated to transcribed chromatin (EKC)/kinase, endopeptidase and other proteins of small size (KEOPS) protein complex [30]. The EKC/KEOPS complex is highly conserved and has roles in transcription, telomere uncapping, chromosome segregation, and DNA repair, and is speci cally required for threonine carbamoyl adenosine (t 6 A) tRNA modi cation and telomeric TG 1 − 3 recombination and length regulation [30][31][32]. There are ve proteins within this complex, encoded by BUD32, CGI121, GON7, KAE1, and PCC1. Of the ve genes, only Δkae1 null mutants are inviable, due to the severe growth impairment and chromosomal instability caused by deleting this essential gene, which encodes an ATPase [33,34]. The role of Cgi121p in the EKC/KEOPS complex is to regulate Bud32p kinase activity by interacting with the Nterminal lobe, which in turn regulates the Kae1p ATPase, allowing for downstream function and catalytic activities [33,35]. Cgi121p does not directly participate in the t 6 A tRNA modi cation function of the complex, but is important for telomere length regulation and recombination [30,34,36], and may also be involved in creating stable connections between each KEOPS subunit, allowing for correct assembly [37]. In S. cerevisiae, Cgi121p is the least essential of the ve proteins in the EKC/KEOPS complex for retaining functionality but is required for maximal activity [37], with the phenotypes of Δcgi121 mutants being much milder than those displayed by Δkae1 or Δbud32 mutants [32][33][34].
Classical genetics studies have shown that null mutants of Δcgi121 have increased replicative lifespan and viability, and reduced single-stranded DNA at uncapped telomeres which functions to initiate telomere recombination [34,36]. Deletion of Δcgi121 in BY4742 resulted in cells with a 50% longer lifespan, as the absence of CGI121 inhibits telomere recombination and therefore provides greater genome stability [36]. Large-scale surveys have implicated the Δcgi121 deletion in causing reduced vegetative and fermentative growth rates; however, data from Srinivasan et al. [30] suggests that the vegetative growth of a W303-1A Δcgi121 mutant was close to wild type on solid medium after two days growth at 30 °C. In the propagation of BY4743 Δcgi121 for fermentation in this research there did not appear to be any difference in vegetative growth in YPD compared to BY4743, with equivalent cell titres (data not shown), but there could be a difference in lag phase earlier on in vegetative growth which was not observable after 24 hours of growth at 28 °C. In terms of fermentative growth, Δcgi121 was identi ed by Steinmetz et al. [38] as showing reduced growth on YPD with 2% glucose; however, this screen was aerobic and does not adequately represent the fermentation environment. Hoose et al. [39] identi ed S288C mutants in Δcgi121 as having an increased duration of cell cycle progression in G 1 phase, with the percentage of S288C Δcgi121 G 1 cells greater than two standard deviations (41.57%) above wild type S288C at equivalent measurement times. The longer period spent in G 1 phase would mean that Δcgi121 cells do not divide as often as wild type and can explain the longer lag time during fermentation. Cell division and vegetative growth in uences the timeframe of the fermentative lag phase and stressful environmental conditions, such as those encountered in the enological environment can signi cantly prolong G 1 [39], which could be why the impact of the Δcgi121 was more pronounced during fermentation at low temperature. The presence of certain nutrients also in uences the timing through G 1 to START, from where the rest of the growth cycle can be completed. When shifting from poor to rich medium, the G 1 phase can be prolonged temporarily until the cells reach a critical size allowing them to commit to a phase of cell division [39]. In Δcgi121 mutants, there is a decreased rate of carbon and nitrogen utilization, with abnormal glucose and arginine metabolism [40], as well as an upregulation of carbohydrate metabolism genes in Δcgi121 mutants compared to wild type [41]. Therefore, abnormal usage of glucose, a primary carbon source in grape juice and SGM, as well as decreased nitrogen consumption and accumulation of arginine, could greatly impact on the lag duration of Δcgi121 mutants during fermentation.

Impact of RPS17a and VMA21 on fermentative lag duration
We have also shown that along with the single deletion in Δcgi121, single deletions in Δrps17a (encoding a ribosomal protein of the small 40S subunit [42]), and Δvma21 (encoding an integral membrane protein required for V-ATPase function [43]) resulted in an extended lag time duration in BY4743, RM11-1a and S288C; however, neither RPS17a nor VMA21 provided clear evidence for any genetic linkage via RHA analysis. Interestingly, Δrps17a mutants demonstrate a prolonged G 1 phase in the cell cycle, in the same way as Δcgi121 [39], which could explain the in uence of the null mutant on fermentative lag. Null mutations in Δvma21, result in a multitude of phenotypes in S. cerevisiae, with decreased resistance to oxidative and osmotic stress [44], and decreased thermotolerance [45], all of which can result in a longer fermentative lag time [13]. Although Δvma21 mutants also had a decreased carbon utilization rate, these were for non-fermentable carbon sources [40,44]. The QTL responsible for the high LOD score on Chr. VII in Deed et al. [22] is yet to be identi ed, but may be derived from the RM11-1a parent, which would mean that the initial BY4743 screen was so useful for pinpointing the QTL responsible.

Conclusions
We have shown that single deletions of Δcgi121, Δrps17a and Δvma21 result in increased fermentative lag duration in S. cerevisiae. This research has also demonstrated that the CGI121 gene, encoding a component of the EKC/KEOPS complex, is responsible for genetic linkage of a QTL on Chr. XIII to fermentative lag phase in S. cerevisiae. Deletion of CGI121 in haploid RM11-1a and S288C resulted in an increase in fermentative lag. Allele swaps via RHA con rmed that the in uence on lag duration was derived from the S288C CGI121 allele. A greater understanding of the role of the CGI121 in stress tolerance will allow easier manipulation and/or selection of S. cerevisiae strains to shorten or lengthen lag time and provide growth advantages during the fermentation of foods and beverages.

S. cerevisiae strains
We utilized laboratory strain BY4743 (MATa/α his3Δ1/his3Δ1 leu2Δ0/leu2Δ0 LYS2/lys2Δ0 met15Δ0/MET15 ura3Δ0/ura3Δ0) and 28 BY4743 single deletants derived from EUROSCARF containing a Kanamycin resistance construct (KanMX) in place of each ORF of interest ( Table 1). The deletants were selected based on an original list of 44 candidates linked to lag phase in Deed et al. [22] after linkage analysis of 119/121 BY4716 × RM11-1a F 1 progeny using 2957 mapped loci [23]. Of the 44 original candidates, 28 were available from EUROSCARF. Single gene deletions in three of the 28 candidates of interest were constructed in S288C (MATα), standing in for the BY4716 parent, and RM11-1a (MATa HO::HphMX) ( Table 2). Combinations of wild type and deletant versions of S288C and RM11-1a were then used to make hybrids for RHA.
Growth and fermentation conditions S. cerevisiae cultures were propagated using yeast peptone dextrose medium (YPD) medium and incubated overnight at 28 °C, with orbital shaking at 150 revolutions per minute (rpm). BY4743 and BY4743 deletion mutants were fermented in 250-mL asks with airlock at 12.5 °C and 15 °C in 100 mL SGM supplemented with additional amounts of the following amino acids: 10 × histidine (300 mg L -1 ), 10 × leucine (300 mg L -1 ) and 10 × uracil (100 mg L -1 ) for auxotrophies [46]. RM11-1a and S288C wild types, deletants, and RHA hybrids were fermented at 12.5 °C in 13-mL tubes with 8 mL SGM. A < 0.5 mm 2 pin-hole was punctured into each tube lid to allow for CO 2 escape [22]. All fermentations were inoculated at density of 1 × 10 6 cells mL -1 and were monitored either 8-hourly or daily by measuring cumulative weight loss (g) (Bely et al. 1990).

Analysis of kinetic parameters
The length of lag phase (h) of BY4743 and the 28 BY4743 deletants at 15 °C was determined using the cumulative weight loss data to calculate the time elapsed between inoculation and the x-axis intercept where the steepest part of the slope transects y 0 , as per Marullo et al. (2006). Lag phase duration for all fermentations performed at 12.5 °C was measured using a Gompertz model with curve tting based on Tronchoni et al. [24] and executed using the R package nlstools [47].
Gene deletions and reciprocal hemizygosity analysis  Table 3) and gel electrophoresis. Crosses were made between RM11-1a and S288C wild types, and combinations of non-deleted RM11-1a with each S288C deletion mutant and vice versa, in order to construct diploid hemizygous F 1 hybrids for RHA [48] (crosses in Table 2). Since there were no markers in the S288C parent, this strain had to be present in 100 × excess of the RM11-1a deletion strain parent for mating (1 × 10 8 cells mL -1 S288C wild type with 1 × 10 6 cells mL -1 RM11-1a Hgm R Kan R deletion strain). Hybrids were selected on YPD plates containing 300 μg L -1 hygromycin B and 200 μg L -1 G-418. A multiplex PCR to amplify ten variable microsatellite markers and two mating type loci, MATa and MATα, was used to ensure that the hybridization was successful and to nalize strain selection since there would be some RM11-1a parents present when crossed with the marker-less S288C ( Lag time duration (h) of BY4743 and 28 BY4743 single gene deletion mutants fermented in synthetic grape medium at 15 °C for 72 h (n = 3). A-D represent batches from 1-4 and each batch included BY4743 for standardization. Error bars represent 95 % con dence intervals. Student's t-test was used to generate pvalues between BY4743 and each single deletant (p < 0.05*, p < 0.01**, p < 0.001***, p < 0.0001****).

Figure 6
Lag time duration (h) of RM11-1a, S288C, and respective single deletants in Δcgi121, Δrps17a, and Δvma21 (A) and RHA hybrids comparing the impact of RM11-1a and S288C alleles of CGI121, RPS17a, and VMA1 (B) fermented in synthetic grape medium at 12.5 °C for 192 h (n = 3). Error bars represent 95 % con dence intervals. Samples sharing the same letter are not signi cantly different (ANOVA followed by post-hoc Tukey's HSD).

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