Part front matter for Part IV Versailles and Its Aftermath

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Prologue: Versailles and its Aftermath

Two types of peace gatherings, suggests Alan Dawley, took place in Europe during the first half of 1919: the “official meeting of diplomats at the old Bourbon Palace of Versailles,” and the “unofficial gatherings of people’s representatives, most of whom were not welcome in Paris and had to find someplace else to meet.” Among those groups that sent representatives to Paris but were denied entry to the peace conference were women’s rights organizations, the NAACP and Pan African Congress, labor and Socialist organizations, and a host of anticolonial nationalists—ranging from Ho Chi Minh, to Emir Faisal and Colonel T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), to representatives of the Irish Sinn Féin movement. The peace conference quickly disappointed these people’s representatives, for Wilson had promised far more than he could deliver.¹

Almost immediately, Wilson compromised on the first of his Fourteen Points: the plenipotentiaries met in secret rather than practicing the “open diplomacy” that Wilson had promised. The notion of a nonpunitive peace was also quickly jettisoned at Versailles; the other Allied powers insisted upon saddling Germany with harsh reparations and a humiliating war guilt clause, as well as stripping it of its colonies. Many independent nation-states, such as Poland, emerged in areas of Eastern Europe formerly controlled by either the German or Austro-Hungarian empires. In the Middle East and Africa, however, former German and Austro-Hungarian colonies were “mandated” to the countries that conquered them, France and Britain in particular. Although mandate status was officially meant to be a halfway house between colonialism and full independence, it gave the supervisory nation extensive influence within the mandated area and “smacked of imperialism.” Japan acquired China’s Shandong province and Germany’s islands in the Pacific even while unsuccessfully pressing for the inclusion of a racial equality clause in the treaty. Anticipating nationalist objections to his handiwork at Versailles in the United States, Wilson won special recognition of the Monroe Doctrine, and thus implicitly of a special sphere of influence for the United States in Latin America, in the treaty. Denied any hearing whatsoever by the plenipotentiaries were those British and French colonies that sought self-determination at war’s end, ranging from Ireland to Egypt, India, and Vietnam.²

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Part front matter for Part IV Versailles and Its Aftermath

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Prologue: Versailles and its Aftermath

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