Secondary structure and domain architecture of the 23S and 5S rRNAs

We present a de novo re-determination of the secondary (2°) structure and domain architecture of the 23S and 5S rRNAs, using 3D structures, determined by X-ray diffraction, as input. In the traditional 2° structure, the center of the 23S rRNA is an extended single strand, which in 3D is seen to be compact and double helical. Accurately assigning nucleotides to helices compels a revision of the 23S rRNA 2° structure. Unlike the traditional 2° structure, the revised 2° structure of the 23S rRNA shows architectural similarity with the 16S rRNA. The revised 2° structure also reveals a clear relationship with the 3D structure and is generalizable to rRNAs of other species from all three domains of life. The 2° structure revision required us to reconsider the domain architecture. We partitioned the 23S rRNA into domains through analysis of molecular interactions, calculations of 2D folding propensities and compactness. The best domain model for the 23S rRNA contains seven domains, not six as previously ascribed. Domain 0 forms the core of the 23S rRNA, to which the other six domains are rooted. Editable 2° structures mapped with various data are provided (http://apollo.chemistry.gatech.edu/RibosomeGallery).

RNA 2 structures, with symbolic representations of base pairs, double-helices, loops, bulges and singlestrands, provide frameworks for understanding structure, folding and function and for organizing a wide variety of information. RNA 2 structures reveal how local 2 elements are organized into quasi-independent domains, which can be used to infer mechanisms of global assembly and evolution. The depiction of the 23S rRNA 2 structure in Figure 1a illustrates how the LSU domain architecture has been traditionally defined (3)(4)(5)(6)(7)(8)(9)(10).
A second key advance in understanding the ribosome was the determination of high-resolution 3D structures (10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18) from all three primary domains of the tree of life; Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryota. The 3D structures of ribosomes confirm many aspects of the 2 structure of the 23S rRNA and validate the co-variation methods that were used for its construction.
However, critical differences distinguish the 2 structure of the 23S rRNA from 3D structures. The most significant discrepancy is in the heart of the 23S rRNA, which is represented by extended single-strands in the traditional 2 structure (Figure 1a). By contrast, 3D structures reveal this portion of the rRNA to be compact and double helical. Thus, the traditional 2 structure does not represent the correct helical configuration of the 23S rRNA. The incorrect representation of helices leads to downstream inaccuracies in the domain architecture.
Here, we present a de novo re-determination of the 2 structures of the 23S and 5S RNAs, using high resolution 3D structures as the input data. The goal is to establish 2 structures that are fully consistent with 3D structures and are as accurate and useful as possible. We seek to obtain 2 representations that allow facile conceptualization of vast available structural, functional and phylogenetic data. Previous revisions of the 23S rRNA 2 structure (19)(20)(21)(22) that were proposed before determination of 3D structures do not reflect some important features of 23S rRNA. Our effort follows and extends discussions of improved 2 structures by Fox and Gutell (23) and by Leontis and Westhof (24,25).
We refer to our revision as 2 structure 3D ( Figure 1b, the 2 structure derived from 3D data) to distinguish it from the traditional 2 structure phylo ( Figure 1a, the 2 structure derived primarily from phylogenetic data). The 2 structure phylo contains six domains, each rooted in the extended single-stranded region at the center of the structure, and arbitrarily positions and orients the 5S rRNA. By contrast, 2 structure 3D contains seven domains; a central domain (Domain 0) forms the essential core of the 23S rRNA, to which the other six domains of the 23S rRNA are rooted. The 5S rRNA is positioned and oriented as an adjunct to Domain 2, based on its location and interactions in the 3D structure. The 2 structure 3D lacks the central single-stranded region of 2 structure phylo .
Representations of both LSU and SSU rRNAs are available online at http://apollo.chemistry.gatech.edu/ RibosomeGallery so that others can evaluate and hopefully exploit and extend the revisions. We provide highresolution editable versions of both 2 structure 3D and 2 structure phylo mapped with a variety of data related to molecular interactions and geometry, phylogeny and evolution and partitioning of rRNA into helices and domains. These representations are available for Escherichia coli, Thermus thermophilus, Haloarcula marismortui and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The work presented in this article is based on the bacterial 23S rRNA of E. coli, although the findings are applicable to the 23S and 28S rRNAs of other species.

Data
The 2 structure phylo (Figure 1a) was obtained from Noller at http://rna.ucsc.edu/rnacenter/ribosome_images.html. The 2 structure 3D was manually laid out, adjusted with the program XRNA (http://rna.ucsc.edu/rnacenter/xrna/ xrna.html) and finalized with Adobe Illustrator. Atomic coordinates of the 23S rRNA of E. coli were obtained from the Nucleic Acid Databank (PDB ID: 3R8S) (11). Base-pairing and base-stacking interactions were obtained from the library of RNA interactions (FR3D) (26) and confirmed by inspection and in-house code. Mapping of data onto 2 structures was performed on the in-house RiboVision server http://apollo.chemistry.gatech.edu/ RiboVision. Images of 3D structures were generated with PyMOL (27).

Defining helices
To build the best 2 structural model of the 23S rRNA, we defined helices by specific geometric and interaction criteria. Helices contain paired bases. Optimum helical definitions maximize intra-helical base stacking and minimize inter-helical base stacking. For base pairing, Figure 1. The 2 structures and domain architectures of the 23S and 5S rRNAs of E. coli. (a) The traditional 2 structure phylo , which is sheared into two fragments, and contains a central single-stranded region and six domains (Domain I, purple; Domain II, blue; Domain III, magenta; Domain IV, yellow; Domain V, pink; Domain VI, green), and (b) 2 structure 3D , which accurately represents all helices, and contains seven domains (Domain 0 in orange; Domains I-VI are colored as in panel 1a). In 2 structure phylo , the central single-stranded region is partitioned between multiple domains, whereas in 2 structure 3D , that same rRNA is double-helical and is fully contained within Domain 0. The 5S rRNA is light green and is placed in the proximity of Domain II in 2 structure 3D to reflect its position in three dimensions and its interactions with the 23S rRNA.
we used the geometric criteria of Leontis and Westhof (28). We assumed that each nucleotide belongs uniquely to no more than one helix and that a helix contains contiguously stacked bases. The majority of helices obtained by this method agree with those obtained by Gutell (8). However, some of their helical boundaries required subtle revision. To minimize differences with 2 structure phylo , we left unaltered the incorrectly assigned portions of rRNA in 2 structure 3D if they did not impact the domain model. For example, new helix 49b remains represented by a loop in structure 3D , as it is in structure phylo . We incorporated new Helices 25a, 26a, 49a and 49b.

Phylogenetic conservation
Sequence conservation across all phylogeny was used to evaluate the generality of various helix and domain models. We aligned 23S rRNA/28S sequences from 122 organisms (29) intended to represent, as far as available data allow, a broad sampling of the phylogenetic tree of life including all three domains of life. Sequences came from 19 eukaryotic species, 67 bacterial species and 36 archaeal species. A complete list of organisms, strains and their taxonomic ID's is given in Supplementary  Table S1.

Shannon entropy
A multiple sequence alignment of the 23S/28S rRNAs was used to calculate the fraction of nucleotide type i (C, G, A or U) in each position along the sequence. The probability (p i ) of a nucleotide type at a given position was approximated by its fractional occupancy at that position in the aligned sequences. The Shannon Entropy (H) at each position was calculated from the probabilities p i according to Equation (1) (30,31).
The Shannon Entropy ranges from 0 to 2. The minimum value indicates that the nucleotide type at that position is universally conserved. The maximum value corresponds to equivalent populations of all four nucleotide types.

Defining domains
The 23S rRNA was partitioned into domains such that each helix is placed uniquely in one domain, using helices defined as described above. We used statistics on molecular interactions, and calculations of 2D folding propensities, compactness and sphericity to evaluate domain models. Inter-and intra-domain interactions include base-pairing, base-stacking and RNA-Mg 2+ -RNA interactions. First-shell Mg 2+ -RNA interactions are defined by Mg 2+ -RNA distance of <2.6 Å (32).

Domain boundaries
The domain boundaries were defined by molecular interactions including base-pairing, base-stacking, base-phosphate and base-sugar interactions (listed here by priority).
Domain boundaries were adjusted to minimize interactions between domains and to maximize interactions within domains. Each nucleotide belongs uniquely to one domain.
Estimating the stability of the secondary structure of Domain 0 Mfold (33) was used to estimate stabilities of 2 structures. To convert Domain 0, for example, to a single RNA polymer in silico, the RNA fragments of Domain 0 were linked at the strand termini. Because Mfold cannot predict folds with non-canonical base pairs, Helix 26a was replaced with a canonical helix composed of Watson-Crick base pairs. The sequence of the substituted helix in the Mfold calculation is (5 0 GUAUAUGC3 0 :5 0 GCAU AUAC3 0 ). The substitution is not expected to affect the energetics of the predicted folds, as the loop E motif and the substitute duplex have similar folding energies (34).

Domain compactness and sphericity
We isolated putative domains from the 3D structure of the LSU and computed various characteristics of the isolated domains using the 3V software package (35). We estimated domain compactness with sphericity (36), which ranges from 0 to 1. Sphericity is calculated as SA sphere /SA particle at fixed volume, where SA is surface area. A sphericity of 1 is most compact.

Intra-and inter-domain interactions
We quantified molecular interactions of all of the rRNA, both helical and non-helical. RNA-RNA interaction frequencies within domains and between domains were estimated as a sum of base-base, phosphate-RNA and RNA-Mg 2+ -RNA interactions using network-based analysis (37)(38)(39). Local secondary interactions were excluded. Interaction matrices were constructed for 2 structure phylo with six domains (a 6Â6 matrix) and 2 structure 3D with seven domains (a 7Â7 matrix). The diagonal elements of these matrices (i,i) describe the number of the intra-domain interactions for Domain i, whereas the off diagonal elements (i,j) contain the total number of interactions between Domain i and Domain j.
To account for the difference in the numbers of nucleotides in various domains, the elements were scaled: the diagonal elements (i,i) were normalized to the number of nucleotides N i in Domain i, and the off-diagonal elements (i,j) were divided by an average number of nucleotides (N i +N j )/2 in Domains i and j.

structure phylo
The 2 structure phylo as proposed in 1981 (3) has been refined over time with increasingly sophisticated methods of co-variation analysis, combined with chemical probing data and information from 3D structures. The current 2 structure phylo (Figure 1a) contains several bulges and helices that were absent in the 1981 2 structure (3)
Inspection of Helix 26a in the 3D structure of the ribosome reveals that G1266 is extruded. This helix falls clearly within the parameters of the loop E motif (24,25). For comparison, an example of a different loop E motif is shown in Figure 3c and d.
We have aligned 23S/28S rRNA sequences from 122 organisms (29) that represent, as far as available data allow, a complete and non-biased sampling of the phylogenetic tree, including to all three domains of life. This alignment suggests that the pairing interactions of Helix 26a are conserved over the entire phylogenetic tree. In addition, we have inspected all available 3D structures of ribosomes (10)(11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18) and observe that Helix 26a is conserved, as a helix, and more specifically, as a loop E motif, in each.
The alignment shows that the nucleotides of Helix 26a cluster into three groups according to the extent of conservation, as observed previously (25). The first conservation group is in the center of the helix and is characterized by conserved base identity and pairing mode: A1265-A1214 (trans Hoogsteen/Hoogsteen), U1267-A1213 (trans Watson-Crick/Hoogsteen), A1268-G2012 (trans Hoogsteen/Sugar edge) and U1267-G1266 (cis Hoogsteen/Sugar edge). The second conservation group contains 1264 nt paired with 2015 nt, with conserved trans Sugar edge/Hoogsteen interaction, but not conserved base identity. The third conservation group, at the termini of the helix, contains Watson-Crick pairs 1262-2017, 1269-2011 and 1270-2010. These base pairs conserve canonical pairing but not base identity.
Sequence analysis of the sarcin ricin loop E motif (Helix 95, Figure 3c and d), also an loop E motif, reaffirms this pattern, with a single difference: the trans Hoogsteen-Hoogsteen A-A base pair in position 1264-2015 mutates in Bacteria to the less stable U-C base pair (25). In general, the sequence and pairing interactions of Helix 26a are more highly conserved than those of Helix 95. Conservation statistics for Helix 26a and Helix 95 are listed in the Supplementary Tables S2 and S3. RNA melting experiments previously demonstrated that a loop E helix has stability comparable to that of a double-stranded Watson-Crick helix of a similar length (34). Loop E motifs have also been predicted and confirmed elsewhere in the 23S rRNA as well as in the 16S and 5S rRNA (24,25).

Defining other helices
Using inspection of 3D structures and geometric calculations of interaction, we have partitioned the nucleotides of the 23S rRNA into helices. Each nucleotide and each base pair belongs uniquely to no more than one helix. Contiguously stacked bases are allocated to a common helix. A description of the method of partitioning of the nucleotides into helices is given in the 'Materials and Methods' section. The revised 2 structure 3D modestly expands the set of helices compared with 2 structure phylo . The 2 structure 3D contains Helices 25a, 26a, 49a and 49b that are absent from 2 structure phylo . The nucleotides within each of these helices are given in Table 1. Helix 25a was noted previously in Haloarcula Marismortiu (16) and E. coli (42). The definitions of helices in 2 structure phylo are available from Gutell (8) at http:// www.rna.icmb.utexas.edu/CAR/1A/.

Re-defining 23S rRNA domains
Domain criteria A domain is defined here as a compact and modular structure, stabilized by a self-contained nexus of molecular interactions that suggest the ability to fold autonomously. Each rRNA helix is considered to be autonomous and to belong uniquely to a single domain. We use computation and inspection to infer which regions of rRNA best satisfy these criteria. We use statistics of molecular interactions, 2D folding simulations and calculations of compactness and sphericity to evaluate domain models.
Domain criteria and 2 structure phylo The 2 structure phylo partitions several helices into multiple domains and therefore is not consistent with our criteria for a domain. The domain structure of 2 structure phylo is not optimized to conform to observed   Table 2 Figure S3). Helix 25a, which was not identified in the Fox and Gutell model, is included in Domain 0. Helix 1 is wholly contained within Domain I.
The 5S rRNA is placed in proximity to Helix 39 to reflect their locations in 3D space and molecular interactions between the two rRNAs (Supplementary Figure  S4). Modest adjustments to previous domains are implemented, but as far as possible, differences between 2 structure 3D and 2 structure phylo are minimized.
Domain 0 is predicted to be an independent fold Results from the program Mfold (33) suggest that Domain 0 is an autonomous folding unit. Mfold suggests that Domain 0 alone folds to the same secondary state as in the intact LSU. As Mfold can only predict folding of RNA containing canonical pairs, the sequence of Helix 26a was converted to a duplex of standard base pairs: 5 0 GUAUAUGC3 0 :5 0 GCAUAUAC3 0 . Helix 25a was not predicted correctly by Mfold because it contains alternating canonical and non-canonical base pairs. Folding of Domain 0 alone by Mfold, with the substituted Helix 26a gave the 2 structure observed within the intact LSU (See Supplementary Figure S5). In all, 43 of 49 base pairs in the secondary structure of Domain 0 (Supplementary Figure S5a) are correctly predicted by Mfold (Supplementary Figure S5b). The AU and GU base pairs at one end of Helices 72 and 73 are wrongly predicted. One of these base pairs involves an A that can interact with two possible U's. Three closing base pairs of the hairpin-loop of Helix 61 are also wrongly predicted. However, this discrepancy results from a non-canonical base pair at this location. In general, the 2 structure of Domain 0 is well-predicted by Mfold, supporting the view that it is a distinct and structurally independent domain. The 2 structure 3D : sphericity and compactness To evaluate domain models of the 23S rRNA, we estimated the compactness of each domain by computing its sphericity. A sphericity of one is exactly spherical and most compact (43). The average sphericity of Domains 0-VI of 2 structure 3D (0.235) is slightly greater than that of Domains I-VI of 2 structure phylo (0.223). Sphericities of each domain are presented in Supplementary Table S5 (Domains I-VI of 2 structure phylo ) and Supplementary  Table S6 (Domains 0-VI of 2 structure 3D ). On average, the domains of 2 structure 3D are slightly more compact than those of 2 structure phylo .
The 2 structure 3D : secondary and tertiary interactions An optimized 2 structure would tend to give the greatest number of 2 interactions and the fewest tertiary interactions. An optimized domain model would tend to give the greatest number of intra-domain interactions and the fewest inter-domain interactions.
The allocation of RNA-RNA interactions between secondary and tertiary interactions differs between 2 structure 3D and Structure phylo . Twenty-one tertiary interactions in 2 structure phylo are converted to secondary interactions in 2 structure 3D . This difference can be seen in the projections of all base-pairing interactions onto 2 structure 3D ( Figure 6) and 2 structure phylo (Figure 2). The short lines in Figures 2 and 6 that connect two opposing stands in a helix represent secondary interactions. Longer lines depict tertiary interactions. Eight base-pairing interactions of Helix 26a (residues 1262-1270 are paired with residues 2010-2017, with residue 1266 forming a triple base pair) are tertiary interactions in 2 structure phylo and secondary interactions in 2 structure 3D . Eight base-pairing interactions in Helix 1 (residues 1-8 are paired with 2895-2902) and 5 basepairing interactions in Helix 2 (residues 26-30 are paired with 510-514) are represented as tertiary interactions in 2 structure phylo , but as secondary interactions in 2 structure phylo .

The 2 structure 3D : inter and intra domain molecular interactions
We tabulated RNA-RNA interactions (estimated as the sum of the number of base-base, phosphate-RNA and RNA-Mg 2+ -RNA interactions) between and within domains for both 2 structure 3D and 2 structure phylo . Inter-domain interaction frequencies were scaled by the mean of the number of nucleotides in the two domains.
The numerical values of both unscaled (Supplementary  Tables S7 and S9) and scaled (Supplementary Tables S8 and S10) interactions for the 2 structure phylo and 2 structure 3D , as well as the detailed list of interactions between Domain 0 and Domains I-VI (Supplementary  Table S11) are given in the Supplementary Data.
The scaled interaction frequencies are presented for 2 structure phylo (Figure 7a, Supplementary Table S8) and 2 structure 3D (Figure 7b, Supplementary Table S10). For both 2 structure 3D and 2 structure phylo , the number of scaled intra-domain interactions (diagonal elements) is always greater than the number of inter-domain interactions for a given domain (off-diagonal elements). Therefore, the interaction frequencies for the domains including Domain 0 are consistent with independent autonomous structural units. Comparison of the sum of diagonal elements in Structure phylo (Supplementary  Table S7) and 2 structure 3D (Supplementary Table S9) and 2 reveals that the total number of the unscaled intra-domain RNA-RNA interactions is slightly higher in 2 structure 3D (289) than 2 structure phylo (287). This difference suggests the seven structural domains of 2 structure 3D are somewhat more independent than six 2 domains of 2 structure phylo , although the difference is small. It can be concluded that the 2 structure 3D is certainly not inferior to 2 structure phylo by these criteria.

Revised 23S rRNA 2 structure
Our goal is to obtain 2 representations that allow facile conceptualization and organization of molecular interactions, 3D architecture, phylogeny and function. We have investigated the utility of 2 structure 3D and 2 structure phylo . The combined results demonstrate a greater accuracy and utility of 2 structure 3D over 2 structure phylo .

Helices
We have performed an accurate and self-consistent partitioning of the 23S rRNA into helices. rRNA that is double stranded in the 3D structure is double stranded in 2 structure 3D . A region of contiguous base pairs near the center of the rRNA is represented as Helix 26a rather than as the extended single strands in the traditional 2 structure phylo . Helix 26a appears to be critical to ribosomal structure and function, as it is conserved in all three major domains of the tree of life. The importance of Helix 26a is shown by conservation of base pairing in rRNA sequences that represent the most complete available sampling of the phylogenetic tree (Supplementary Table  S1) (29), and by conservation of 3D structure. Assessing utility of domain models: projection of distance from the peptidyl transfer center Our goal is to advance a 2 structure and a domain model of the 23S rRNA that is coherent with the 3D structure. Projecting data from the 3D structure onto the 2 structures allows us to evaluate their coherence. When the distance (in Å ) from the site of peptidyl transfer is projected onto 2 structure phylo (Figure 8a), the relationship between 2 structure and 3D structure is tenuous and unconvincing. Nucleotides that are close together in 3D space, in this case closest to the PTC (dark blue in Figure 8b), are dispersed over 2 structure phylo . However, when these proximity data are projected onto 2 structure 3D (Figure 8c), the nucleotides closest together  in 3D space are clustered in 2D space. The blue swatch running diagonally from lower left to upper right represents nucleotides that are near to the PTC (blue in Figure 8). Similarly, the nucleotides that are remote from the PTC (red in Figure 8) are incoherently distributed in 2 structure phylo but are confined to the periphery of 2 structure 3D . Therefore, the 2 structure 3D and the 3D structure present a consistent and comprehensible view of the 23S rRNA.

Architectural similarities between the 23S and 16S rRNAs
As noted by Thirumalai, the domain structure of the LSU appears to differ significantly from that of the SSU (43). The LSU appears monolithic (16), whereas the SSU contains distinct and separate domains (44)(45)(46). However, 2 structure 3D suggests that the differences between the LSU and SSU are more modest than previously assumed. In 2 structure 3D , the 23S rRNA, like the 16S rRNA, contains a central region to which other domains are rooted, i.e. both rRNAs have a central structural core. In 2 structure 3D of the 23S rRNA, like in the 2 structure of 16S rRNA, the structural center is distinct from the functional center (PTC in the 23S rRNA and the decoding center in 16S rRNA) but is in close proximity to it. These observations confirm and extend a previous hypothesis (23) that the apparent differences between the 23S and 16S rRNA are dependent on the domain model.

What is a domain?
Ideally, an RNA domain is an independently stable globular structure composed of a continuous RNA strand, with domain boundaries defined by helicies. In the 2 structure of the 23S rRNA proposed in 1981 by Noller and Gutell (3), most 2 domains are continuous and are delimited by closing helices. However, those domain boundaries leave rRNA remnants, which were not assigned any domain. In more recent domain models (10), the remnants are included in proximal domains. The result is that none of the domains of 2 structure phylo are delimited by a closing helix (Figure 1a). An additional difficulty with the concept of a RNA domain is one of scale: small RNA fragments such tetraloops (47,48) form independently stable and well-defined structures, closed by helices. Is a tetraloop a domain? A final difficulty with the concept of an RNA domain relates to possible continuity of RNA strands. A process by which older domains can be fragmented, and a mechanism of rRNA evolution, is suggested by rRNA expansion elements of eukaryotes. These expansion elements reveal that stem-loops, subdomains, and even domains can be inserted within previously established rRNA segments, fragmenting them. Considering that the ideal definition of a domain lacks universality, we did not impose helices as domain boundaries on 2 structure 3D and not restrain the RNA of a domain to be a continuous strand.

Functional and evolutionary implications
Domain 0 forms the entry and early portions of the exit tunnel, interacting with Domain V. Domain 0 forms a cradle (Figure 9a) for A-site and P-site of Domain V (Figure 9b). The interactions are mediated by a positively charged extension of rProtein L3 (amino acids 127-161) that is rich in arginines, lysines, and histidines and bears a net charge of+7 in E. coli (Figure 9c and d). The extension essentially fills a cavity between Domain 0 (Helices 61, 72, and 73) and the PTC (Helices 89 and 93) as shown in Figure 9d. The positively charged extension of rProtein L3 might be a fossil of one of the earliest non-coded products of the ancestral LSU.
Unlike the domains of 16S rRNA, which are predominantly isolated in space and 'structurally autonomous' (10), the domains of the 23S rRNA have convoluted shapes that interpenetrate in a monolithic assembly (16). These differences might be explained by a model in which early evolution of the LSU occurred in the absence of stabilizing peptides, which are thought to be a product of the primitive LSU (49). If so, stabilization of the early 23S rRNA was predominantly governed by cations (50,51) and RNA-RNA interactions (42), which resulted in interlocking motifs of the central core. By contrast the 16S may have originally assembled somewhat later, in the presence of short non-coded peptides made by the ancestral PTC.

CONCLUSIONS
We have performed a de novo re-determination of the 2 structure of the 23S RNA using 3D structures as the primary data. We propose a revised 2 structure referred to as 2 structure 3D . The 2 structure 3D lacks an extended central-stranded region in the heart of the 23S rRNA and contains seven 2 domains in contrast to six in the traditional 2 structure phylo . The 2 structure 3D contains a central core domain, which we call Domain 0, from which all other domains branch. Domain 0 is highly conserved over phylogeny and provides a structural integrity of 23S rRNA.
The 2 structure 3D of 23S rRNA of E. coli, as presented here, is readily generalized to other species. Along with the maps discussed in the manuscript, we have also generated 2 structures 3D for T. thermophilus, H. marismortui, and S. cerevisiae. Additionally, we have mapped the variety of data onto the 2 structure 3D and the conventional 2 structure phylo . On-line editable representations are available in a gallery at http://apollo.chemistry.gatech.edu/ RibosomeGallery.