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A - General Economics and Teaching

A1 - General Economics

A11 - Role of Economics; Role of Economists; Market for Economists

A2 - Economic Education and Teaching of Economics

A22 - Undergraduate

B - History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches

B4 - Economic Methodology

B5 - Current Heterodox Approaches

B54 - Feminist Economics

C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods

C1 - Econometric and Statistical Methods and Methodology: General

C11 - Bayesian Analysis: General

C12 - Hypothesis Testing: General

C14 - Semiparametric and Nonparametric Methods: General

C15 - Statistical Simulation Methods: General

C18 - Methodological Issues: General

C2 - Single Equation Models; Single Variables

C20 - General

C21 - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models; Quantile Regressions

C23 - Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models

C26 - Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation

C3 - Multiple or Simultaneous Equation Models; Multiple Variables

C31 - Cross-Sectional Models; Spatial Models; Treatment Effect Models; Quantile Regressions; Social Interaction Models

C32 - Time-Series Models; Dynamic Quantile Regressions; Dynamic Treatment Effect Models; Diffusion Processes; State Space Models

C33 - Panel Data Models; Spatio-temporal Models

C36 - Instrumental Variables (IV) Estimation

C4 - Econometric and Statistical Methods: Special Topics

C40 - General

C41 - Duration Analysis; Optimal Timing Strategies

C42 - Survey Methods

C43 - Index Numbers and Aggregation

C5 - Econometric Modeling

C50 - General

C51 - Model Construction and Estimation

C52 - Model Evaluation, Validation, and Selection

C53 - Forecasting and Prediction Methods; Simulation Methods

C58 - Financial Econometrics

C6 - Mathematical Methods; Programming Models; Mathematical and Simulation Modeling

C68 - Computable General Equilibrium Models

C7 - Game Theory and Bargaining Theory

C72 - Noncooperative Games

C8 - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs

C80 - General

C81 - Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Microeconomic Data; Data Access

C82 - Methodology for Collecting, Estimating, and Organizing Macroeconomic Data; Data Access

C83 - Survey Methods; Sampling Methods

C9 - Design of Experiments

C90 - General

C91 - Laboratory, Individual Behavior

C93 - Field Experiments

D - Microeconomics

D0 - General

D02 - Institutions: Design, Formation, Operations, and Impact

D03 - Behavioral Microeconomics: Underlying Principles

D04 - Microeconomic Policy: Formulation; Implementation, and Evaluation

D1 - Household Behavior and Family Economics

D10 - General

D11 - Consumer Economics: Theory

D12 - Consumer Economics: Empirical Analysis

D13 - Household Production and Intrahousehold Allocation

D14 - Household Saving; Personal Finance

D19 - Other

D2 - Production and Organizations

D21 - Firm Behavior: Theory

D22 - Firm Behavior: Empirical Analysis

D23 - Organizational Behavior; Transaction Costs; Property Rights

D24 - Production; Cost; Capital; Capital, Total Factor, and Multifactor Productivity; Capacity

D3 - Distribution

D30 - General

D31 - Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions

D33 - Factor Income Distribution

D39 - Other

D4 - Market Structure, Pricing, and Design

D40 - General

D5 - General Equilibrium and Disequilibrium

D50 - General

D52 - Incomplete Markets

D57 - Input-Output Tables and Analysis

D6 - Welfare Economics

D60 - General

D61 - Allocative Efficiency; Cost-Benefit Analysis

D62 - Externalities

D63 - Equity, Justice, Inequality, and Other Normative Criteria and Measurement

D64 - Altruism; Philanthropy

D7 - Analysis of Collective Decision-Making

D70 - General

D71 - Social Choice; Clubs; Committees; Associations

D72 - Political Processes: Rent-seeking, Lobbying, Elections, Legislatures, and Voting Behavior

D73 - Bureaucracy; Administrative Processes in Public Organizations; Corruption

D74 - Conflict; Conflict Resolution; Alliances; Revolutions

D78 - Positive Analysis of Policy Formulation and Implementation

D8 - Information, Knowledge, and Uncertainty

D80 - General

D81 - Criteria for Decision-Making under Risk and Uncertainty

D82 - Asymmetric and Private Information; Mechanism Design

D83 - Search; Learning; Information and Knowledge; Communication; Belief; Unawareness

D84 - Expectations; Speculations

D85 - Network Formation and Analysis: Theory

D9 - Micro-Based Behavioral Economics

D90 - General

D91 - Role and Effects of Psychological, Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Factors on Decision Making

D92 - Intertemporal Firm Choice, Investment, Capacity, and Financing

E - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics

E0 - General

E01 - Measurement and Data on National Income and Product Accounts and Wealth; Environmental Accounts

E02 - Institutions and the Macroeconomy

E1 - General Aggregative Models

E10 - General

E17 - Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications

E2 - Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and Informal Economy

E20 - General

E21 - Consumption; Saving; Wealth

E22 - Investment; Capital; Intangible Capital; Capacity

E23 - Production

E24 - Employment; Unemployment; Wages; Intergenerational Income Distribution; Aggregate Human Capital; Aggregate Labor Productivity

E25 - Aggregate Factor Income Distribution

E26 - Informal Economy; Underground Economy

E3 - Prices, Business Fluctuations, and Cycles

E31 - Price Level; Inflation; Deflation

E32 - Business Fluctuations; Cycles

E4 - Money and Interest Rates

E43 - Interest Rates: Determination, Term Structure, and Effects

E44 - Financial Markets and the Macroeconomy

E5 - Monetary Policy, Central Banking, and the Supply of Money and Credit

E50 - General

E6 - Macroeconomic Policy, Macroeconomic Aspects of Public Finance, and General Outlook

E61 - Policy Objectives; Policy Designs and Consistency; Policy Coordination

E62 - Fiscal Policy

E64 - Incomes Policy; Price Policy

F - International Economics

F0 - General

F02 - International Economic Order and Integration

F1 - Trade

F10 - General

F11 - Neoclassical Models of Trade

F12 - Models of Trade with Imperfect Competition and Scale Economies; Fragmentation

F13 - Trade Policy; International Trade Organizations

F14 - Empirical Studies of Trade

F15 - Economic Integration

F16 - Trade and Labor Market Interactions

F17 - Trade Forecasting and Simulation

F18 - Trade and Environment

F2 - International Factor Movements and International Business

F21 - International Investment; Long-Term Capital Movements

F22 - International Migration

F23 - Multinational Firms; International Business

F24 - Remittances

F3 - International Finance

F31 - Foreign Exchange

F32 - Current Account Adjustment; Short-Term Capital Movements

F33 - International Monetary Arrangements and Institutions

F34 - International Lending and Debt Problems

F35 - Foreign Aid

F36 - Financial Aspects of Economic Integration

F4 - Macroeconomic Aspects of International Trade and Finance

F40 - General

F41 - Open Economy Macroeconomics

F42 - International Policy Coordination and Transmission

F43 - Economic Growth of Open Economies

F44 - International Business Cycles

F47 - Forecasting and Simulation: Models and Applications

F5 - International Relations, National Security, and International Political Economy

F50 - General

F51 - International Conflicts; Negotiations; Sanctions

F53 - International Agreements and Observance; International Organizations

F55 - International Institutional Arrangements

F6 - Economic Impacts of Globalization

F61 - Microeconomic Impacts

F62 - Macroeconomic Impacts

F63 - Economic Development

F66 - Labor

G - Financial Economics

G0 - General

G01 - Financial Crises

G02 - Behavioral Finance: Underlying Principles

G1 - General Financial Markets

G10 - General

G11 - Portfolio Choice; Investment Decisions

G12 - Asset Pricing; Trading volume; Bond Interest Rates

G14 - Information and Market Efficiency; Event Studies; Insider Trading

G15 - International Financial Markets

G18 - Government Policy and Regulation

G2 - Financial Institutions and Services

G20 - General

G21 - Banks; Depository Institutions; Micro Finance Institutions; Mortgages

G22 - Insurance; Insurance Companies; Actuarial Studies

G23 - Non-bank Financial Institutions; Financial Instruments; Institutional Investors

G28 - Government Policy and Regulation

G29 - Other

G3 - Corporate Finance and Governance

G30 - General

G31 - Capital Budgeting; Fixed Investment and Inventory Studies; Capacity

G32 - Financing Policy; Financial Risk and Risk Management; Capital and Ownership Structure; Value of Firms; Goodwill

G33 - Bankruptcy; Liquidation

G34 - Mergers; Acquisitions; Restructuring; Corporate Governance

G38 - Government Policy and Regulation

G5 - Household Finance

G50 - General

G51 - Household Saving, Borrowing, Debt, and Wealth

H - Public Economics

H0 - General

H00 - General

H1 - Structure and Scope of Government

H10 - General

H11 - Structure, Scope, and Performance of Government

H12 - Crisis Management

H2 - Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue

H21 - Efficiency; Optimal Taxation

H22 - Incidence

H23 - Externalities; Redistributive Effects; Environmental Taxes and Subsidies

H24 - Personal Income and Other Nonbusiness Taxes and Subsidies; includes inheritance and gift taxes

H25 - Business Taxes and Subsidies

H26 - Tax Evasion and Avoidance

H3 - Fiscal Policies and Behavior of Economic Agents

H31 - Household

H4 - Publicly Provided Goods

H40 - General

H41 - Public Goods

H42 - Publicly Provided Private Goods

H43 - Project Evaluation; Social Discount Rate

H44 - Publicly Provided Goods: Mixed Markets

H5 - National Government Expenditures and Related Policies

H50 - General

H51 - Government Expenditures and Health

H52 - Government Expenditures and Education

H53 - Government Expenditures and Welfare Programs

H54 - Infrastructures; Other Public Investment and Capital Stock

H55 - Social Security and Public Pensions

H56 - National Security and War

H57 - Procurement

H6 - National Budget, Deficit, and Debt

H60 - General

H63 - Debt; Debt Management; Sovereign Debt

H7 - State and Local Government; Intergovernmental Relations

H70 - General

H72 - State and Local Budget and Expenditures

H73 - Interjurisdictional Differentials and Their Effects

H75 - State and Local Government: Health; Education; Welfare; Public Pensions

H77 - Intergovernmental Relations; Federalism; Secession

H8 - Miscellaneous Issues

H81 - Governmental Loans; Loan Guarantees; Credits; Grants; Bailouts

H83 - Public Administration; Public Sector Accounting and Audits

H87 - International Fiscal Issues; International Public Goods

I - Health, Education, and Welfare

I0 - General

I00 - General

I1 - Health

I10 - General

I11 - Analysis of Health Care Markets

I12 - Health Behavior

I13 - Health Insurance, Public and Private

I14 - Health and Inequality

I15 - Health and Economic Development

I18 - Government Policy; Regulation; Public Health

I2 - Education and Research Institutions

I20 - General

I21 - Analysis of Education

I22 - Educational Finance; Financial Aid

I23 - Higher Education; Research Institutions

I24 - Education and Inequality

I25 - Education and Economic Development

I26 - Returns to Education

I28 - Government Policy

I29 - Other

I3 - Welfare, Well-Being, and Poverty

I30 - General

I31 - General Welfare

I32 - Measurement and Analysis of Poverty

I38 - Government Policy; Provision and Effects of Welfare Programs

J - Labor and Demographic Economics

J0 - General

J08 - Labor Economics Policies

J1 - Demographic Economics

J10 - General

J11 - Demographic Trends, Macroeconomic Effects, and Forecasts

J12 - Marriage; Marital Dissolution; Family Structure; Domestic Abuse

J13 - Fertility; Family Planning; Child Care; Children; Youth

J14 - Economics of the Elderly; Economics of the Handicapped; Non-Labor Market Discrimination

J15 - Economics of Minorities, Races, Indigenous Peoples, and Immigrants; Non-labor Discrimination

J16 - Economics of Gender; Non-labor Discrimination

J17 - Value of Life; Forgone Income

J18 - Public Policy

J2 - Demand and Supply of Labor

J20 - General

J21 - Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure

J22 - Time Allocation and Labor Supply

J23 - Labor Demand

J24 - Human Capital; Skills; Occupational Choice; Labor Productivity

J26 - Retirement; Retirement Policies

J28 - Safety; Job Satisfaction; Related Public Policy

J3 - Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs

J30 - General

J31 - Wage Level and Structure; Wage Differentials

J32 - Nonwage Labor Costs and Benefits; Retirement Plans; Private Pensions

J38 - Public Policy

J4 - Particular Labor Markets

J42 - Monopsony; Segmented Labor Markets

J43 - Agricultural Labor Markets

J44 - Professional Labor Markets; Occupational Licensing

J45 - Public Sector Labor Markets

J46 - Informal Labor Markets

J6 - Mobility, Unemployment, Vacancies, and Immigrant Workers

J60 - General

J61 - Geographic Labor Mobility; Immigrant Workers

J63 - Turnover; Vacancies; Layoffs

J64 - Unemployment: Models, Duration, Incidence, and Job Search

J65 - Unemployment Insurance; Severance Pay; Plant Closings

J68 - Public Policy

J8 - Labor Standards: National and International

J81 - Working Conditions

J82 - Labor Force Composition

J88 - Public Policy

K - Law and Economics

K0 - General

K1 - Basic Areas of Law

K10 - General

K11 - Property Law

K14 - Criminal Law

K2 - Regulation and Business Law

K3 - Other Substantive Areas of Law

K31 - Labor Law

K32 - Environmental, Health, and Safety Law

K36 - Family and Personal Law

K37 - Immigration Law

K4 - Legal Procedure, the Legal System, and Illegal Behavior

K42 - Illegal Behavior and the Enforcement of Law

L - Industrial Organization

L0 - General

L00 - General

L1 - Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance

L10 - General

L11 - Production, Pricing, and Market Structure; Size Distribution of Firms

L14 - Transactional Relationships; Contracts and Reputation; Networks

L15 - Information and Product Quality; Standardization and Compatibility

L16 - Industrial Organization and Macroeconomics: Industrial Structure and Structural Change; Industrial Price Indices

L2 - Firm Objectives, Organization, and Behavior

L20 - General

L21 - Business Objectives of the Firm

L22 - Firm Organization and Market Structure

L25 - Firm Performance: Size, Diversification, and Scope

L26 - Entrepreneurship

L3 - Nonprofit Organizations and Public Enterprise

L31 - Nonprofit Institutions; NGOs; Social Entrepreneurship

L33 - Comparison of Public and Private Enterprises and Nonprofit Institutions; Privatization; Contracting Out

L4 - Antitrust Issues and Policies

L43 - Legal Monopolies and Regulation or Deregulation

L5 - Regulation and Industrial Policy

L51 - Economics of Regulation

L52 - Industrial Policy; Sectoral Planning Methods

L6 - Industry Studies: Manufacturing

L60 - General

L66 - Food; Beverages; Cosmetics; Tobacco; Wine and Spirits

L7 - Industry Studies: Primary Products and Construction

L70 - General

L8 - Industry Studies: Services

L80 - General

L86 - Information and Internet Services; Computer Software

L9 - Industry Studies: Transportation and Utilities

L90 - General

L91 - Transportation: General

L92 - Railroads and Other Surface Transportation

L94 - Electric Utilities

L95 - Gas Utilities; Pipelines; Water Utilities

L96 - Telecommunications

L97 - Utilities: General

M - Business Administration and Business Economics; Marketing; Accounting; Personnel Economics

M1 - Business Administration

M13 - New Firms; Startups

M5 - Personnel Economics

M50 - General

M51 - Firm Employment Decisions; Promotions

M52 - Compensation and Compensation Methods and Their Effects

M53 - Training

N - Economic History

N0 - General

N00 - General

N1 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations

N17 - Africa; Oceania

N2 - Financial Markets and Institutions

N20 - General, International, or Comparative

N22 - U.S.; Canada: 1913-

N3 - Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy

N35 - Asia including Middle East

N37 - Africa; Oceania

N4 - Government, War, Law, International Relations, and Regulation

N47 - Africa; Oceania

N5 - Agriculture, Natural Resources, Environment, and Extractive Industries

N55 - Asia including Middle East

N56 - Latin America; Caribbean

N57 - Africa; Oceania

N7 - Transport, Trade, Energy, Technology, and Other Services

N77 - Africa; Oceania

N9 - Regional and Urban History

N97 - Africa; Oceania

O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth

O1 - Economic Development

O10 - General

O11 - Macroeconomic Analyses of Economic Development

O12 - Microeconomic Analyses of Economic Development

O13 - Agriculture; Natural Resources; Energy; Environment; Other Primary Products

O14 - Industrialization; Manufacturing and Service Industries; Choice of Technology

O15 - Human Resources; Human Development; Income Distribution; Migration

O16 - Financial Markets; Saving and Capital Investment; Corporate Finance and Governance

O17 - Formal and Informal Sectors; Shadow Economy; Institutional Arrangements

O18 - Urban, Rural, Regional, and Transportation Analysis; Housing; Infrastructure

O19 - International Linkages to Development; Role of International Organizations

O2 - Development Planning and Policy

O20 - General

O21 - Planning Models; Planning Policy

O22 - Project Analysis

O23 - Fiscal and Monetary Policy in Development

O24 - Trade Policy; Factor Movement Policy; Foreign Exchange Policy

O25 - Industrial Policy

O3 - Innovation; Research and Development; Technological Change; Intellectual Property Rights

O30 - General

O31 - Innovation and Invention: Processes and Incentives

O33 - Technological Change: Choices and Consequences; Diffusion Processes

O38 - Government Policy

O4 - Economic Growth and Aggregate Productivity

O40 - General

O41 - One, Two, and Multisector Growth Models

O43 - Institutions and Growth

O47 - Empirical Studies of Economic Growth; Aggregate Productivity; Cross-Country Output Convergence

O5 - Economywide Country Studies

O50 - General

O52 - Europe

O53 - Asia including Middle East

O54 - Latin America; Caribbean

O55 - Africa

O57 - Comparative Studies of Countries

P - Economic Systems

P1 - Capitalist Systems

P16 - Political Economy

P18 - Energy: Environment

P2 - Socialist Systems and Transitional Economies

P20 - General

P21 - Planning, Coordination, and Reform

P23 - Factor and Product Markets; Industry Studies; Population

P3 - Socialist Institutions and Their Transitions

P31 - Socialist Enterprises and Their Transitions

P36 - Consumer Economics; Health; Education and Training; Welfare, Income, Wealth, and Poverty

P37 - Legal Institutions; Illegal Behavior

P4 - Other Economic Systems

P45 - International Trade, Finance, Investment, and Aid

P46 - Consumer Economics; Health; Education and Training; Welfare, Income, Wealth, and Poverty

P48 - Political Economy; Legal Institutions; Property Rights; Natural Resources; Energy; Environment; Regional Studies

P5 - Comparative Economic Systems

P51 - Comparative Analysis of Economic Systems

P52 - Comparative Studies of Particular Economies

Q - Agricultural and Natural Resource Economics; Environmental and Ecological Economics

Q0 - General

Q01 - Sustainable Development

Q02 - Commodity Markets

Q1 - Agriculture

Q10 - General

Q11 - Aggregate Supply and Demand Analysis; Prices

Q12 - Micro Analysis of Farm Firms, Farm Households, and Farm Input Markets

Q13 - Agricultural Markets and Marketing; Cooperatives; Agribusiness

Q14 - Agricultural Finance

Q15 - Land Ownership and Tenure; Land Reform; Land Use; Irrigation; Agriculture and Environment

Q16 - R&D; Agricultural Technology; Biofuels; Agricultural Extension Services

Q17 - Agriculture in International Trade

Q18 - Agricultural Policy; Food Policy

Q19 - Other

Q2 - Renewable Resources and Conservation

Q20 - General

Q22 - Fishery; Aquaculture

Q23 - Forestry

Q25 - Water

Q3 - Nonrenewable Resources and Conservation

Q32 - Exhaustible Resources and Economic Development

Q34 - Natural Resources and Domestic and International Conflicts

Q4 - Energy

Q41 - Demand and Supply; Prices

Q42 - Alternative Energy Sources

Q5 - Environmental Economics

Q50 - General

Q51 - Valuation of Environmental Effects

Q53 - Air Pollution; Water Pollution; Noise; Hazardous Waste; Solid Waste; Recycling

Q54 - Climate; Natural Disasters; Global Warming

Q56 - Environment and Development; Environment and Trade; Sustainability; Environmental Accounts and Accounting; Environmental Equity; Population Growth

Q57 - Ecological Economics: Ecosystem Services; Biodiversity Conservation; Bioeconomics; Industrial Ecology

Q58 - Government Policy

R - Urban, Rural, Regional, Real Estate, and Transportation Economics

R0 - General

R00 - General

R1 - General Regional Economics

R10 - General

R11 - Regional Economic Activity: Growth, Development, Environmental Issues, and Changes

R12 - Size and Spatial Distributions of Regional Economic Activity

R13 - General Equilibrium and Welfare Economic Analysis of Regional Economies

R14 - Land Use Patterns

R2 - Household Analysis

R20 - General

R22 - Other Demand

R23 - Regional Migration; Regional Labor Markets; Population; Neighborhood Characteristics

R28 - Government Policy

R3 - Real Estate Markets, Spatial Production Analysis, and Firm Location

R31 - Housing Supply and Markets

R32 - Other Spatial Production and Pricing Analysis

R4 - Transportation Economics

R41 - Transportation: Demand, Supply, and Congestion; Travel Time; Safety and Accidents; Transportation Noise

R42 - Government and Private Investment Analysis; Road Maintenance; Transportation Planning

R5 - Regional Government Analysis

R51 - Finance in Urban and Rural Economies

R53 - Public Facility Location Analysis; Public Investment and Capital Stock

Y - Miscellaneous Categories

Y1 - Data: Tables and Charts

Y10 - Data: Tables and Charts

Z - Other Special Topics

Z1 - Cultural Economics; Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology

Z10 - General

Z12 - Religion

Z13 - Economic Sociology; Economic Anthropology; Social and Economic Stratification

Z18 - Public Policy

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N - Economic History (2)
- N1 - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics; Industrial Structure; Growth; Fluctuations (2)
C - Mathematical and Quantitative Methods (1)
- C8 - Data Collection and Data Estimation Methodology; Computer Programs (1)
  - C80 - General (1)
F - International Economics (1)
- F2 - International Factor Movements and International Business (1)
  - F23 - Multinational Firms; International Business (1)
L - Industrial Organization (1)
- L1 - Market Structure, Firm Strategy, and Market Performance (1)
  - L16 - Industrial Organization and Macroeconomics: Industrial Structure and Structural Change; Industrial Price Indices (1)
O - Economic Development, Innovation, Technological Change, and Growth (1)

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Journal Article

Foreign Direct Investment and Structural Transformation in Africa

PDF

Bernard Hoekman and others

The World Bank Economic Review, lhaf009, https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhaf009

Published: 12 April 2025

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Journal Article

The Changing Structure of Africa’s Economies

PDF

Xinshen Diao and others

The World Bank Economic Review, Volume 31, Issue 2, June 2017, Pages 412–433, https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhw070

Published: 06 April 2017

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